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''by Sara Frank Bristow''
''(Re.ViCa version by [[Sara Frank Bristow]] and [[Paul Bacsich]].)''
 
''Put in merged template and updated for VISCED by [[Sara Frank Bristow]].''
 
''For entities in the United States see [[:Category:United_States]] ''
 
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== Experts situated in the United States ==
== Experts situated in the United States ==


The list has not been finalised as of July 2011, but is known to include the following:
* Cathy Cavanaugh, Associate Professor of Educational Technology, School of Teaching and Learning, University of [[Florida]] at Gainesville
* Cathy Cavanaugh, Associate professor of educational technology, School of Teaching and Learning, University of [[Florida]] at Gainesville.
* Sara Frank Bristow, Independent Researcher and Sero collaborator; contributor to Re.ViCa
* Sara Frank Bristow, independent researcher and Sero collaborator; contributor to Re.ViCa and VISCED.
* Susan Patrick, International Association for K-12 Online Learning (iNACOL)
* Russ Poulin, WICHE Cooperative for Educational Technologies; contributor to Re.ViCa.
* Russ Poulin, WICHE Cooperative for Educational Technologies; contributor to Re.ViCa
 
<!-- This should include VISCED partners in the country, or partners from other current/former relevant projects such as Re.ViCa -->
<!-- This should include VISCED partners in the country, or partners from other current/former relevant projects such as Re.ViCa -->
<!-- as well as members of IAC and experts in universities, key ministries or agencies -->
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== United States in a nutshell ==
== United States in a nutshell ==
(sourced in part from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States and https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html)
(sourced in part from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States and https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html)


=== Overview ===
[[Image:US.gif|right|thumb|300px|Source : http://www.cia.gov]]


[[Image:US.gif|right|thumb|400px|Source : http://www.cia.gov]]
The United States ('''United States of America'''; '''US''', '''USA''', or '''America''') is a federal [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_republic constitutional republic] comprising 50 states and a federal district. The world's oldest surviving [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federation federation], the United States is a constitutional republic and representative democracy, in which citizens are subject to three levels of government: federal, state, and local.


The United States ('''United States of America'''; '''US''', '''USA''', or '''America''') is a federal [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_republic constitutional republic] comprising 50 states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central [[North America]], where its 48 contiguous states and Washington DC, the capital district, lie between the [[Pacific Ocean]] and [[Atlantic Ocean]], bordered by [[Canada]] to the north and [[Mexico]] to the south.  
The country is situated mostly in central [[North America]] between the [[Pacific Ocean]] and [[Atlantic Ocean]], bordered by [[Canada]] to the north and [[Mexico]] to the south. At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km<sup>2</sup>) and with about 311 million people (July 2011), the United States is the third or fourth largest country by total area ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_and_outlying_territories_by_total_area depending on definition]), and third largest by land area and by population.


Separate from the contiguous US, the state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with [[Canada]] to its east and [[Russia]] to the west (across the Bering Strait). The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories, or insular areas, in the [[Caribbean]] and [[Pacific Ocean]] – some are discussed below.
[[Image:US_map_states_wikicommons.png|thumb|left|200px|Wikimedia Commons Map of US states]]


At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km<sup>2</sup>) and with about 311 million people (July 2011), the United States is the third or fourth largest country by total area ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_and_outlying_territories_by_total_area depending on definition]), and third largest by land area and by population.  
The US comprises 50 discrete states; see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA_states the US States Wikipedia article] for a full list. [[Washington D.C.]] (the District of Columbia), a special district which is not part of any US state, serves as the permanent national capital. The US also possesses five major overseas territories, all considered separately in this wiki. According to 2010 estimates, the largest contiguous state, [[California]], has 37 million people; and the next, [[Texas]], has 25 million. The seven states with 10 million people or more are: [[California]], [[Texas]], [[New York]], [[Florida]], [[Illinois]], [[Pennsylvania]] and [[Ohio]]. Ten states have populations of less than 10 but more than 6 million. 33 states have populations under 6 million; of these, 13 have populations ranging from 1 to 3 million.  


The United States is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries. The US economy is the largest national economy in the world.
The list of states with their own Virtual Campus wiki entries resides at [[:Category:States of the United States]]. Regional sub-categories have been created for states with a high incidence of notable e-learning programmes, e.g. [[California]] and [[Colorado]]. Others are added as activity is identified.


=== Government ===
== Education in the United States ==


The United States is the world's oldest surviving [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federation federation]. It is a constitutional republic and representative democracy, "in which majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected by law." The government is regulated by a system of checks and balances defined by the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Constitution  US Constitution], the country's supreme legal document. In the American federalist system, citizens are usually subject to three levels of government: federal, state, and local; the local government's duties are commonly split between county and municipal governments. In almost all cases, executive and legislative officials are elected by a plurality vote of citizens by district. There is no proportional representation at the federal level, and it is very rare at lower levels.  
Students are not compelled to study at nationally controlled or public schools in the United States, and from primary through post-secondary level, a broad range of private, for-profit options exist. In 2008, about 74 million people (both citizens and foreign nationals) were enrolled in American schools, colleges and universities.


=== The States ===
Education is [http://www2.ed.gov/about/overview/fed/role.html primarily a state and local responsibility] in the US, with most decisions made (and policies established) on that basis. It is states and communities, as well as public and private organisations of various types, that establish schools and colleges, develop curricula, and determine requirements for enrolment and graduation - not the federal (central) government.


[[Image:US_map_states_wikicommons.png|thumb|right|300px|Wikimedia Commons Map of US states]]
The structure of education finance in America reflects this predominant state and local role. Of an estimated $1.13 trillion in government funds being spent nationwide on education at all levels for the school year 2010-2011, a substantial majority comes from state, local, and private sources. This is especially true at the elementary (primary) and secondary levels, where 89% of the funds will come from non-federal sources.


The United States is a federal union of 50 states. The original 13 states were the successors of the 13 colonies that rebelled against British rule; most of the other states have been carved from territories obtained through war or purchase by the U.S. government. The states do not have the right to secede from the union. See the Wikipedia article on [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA_states US States] for a full list.
The Federal government contribution to primary and secondary education is only about 11%.


The states compose the bulk of the US land mass; the two other areas considered integral parts of the country are the District of Columbia, the federal district where the capital, Washington, is located; and Palmyra Atoll, an uninhabited but incorporated territory in the Pacific Ocean. The United States also possesses five major overseas territories: [[Puerto Rico]] and the United States [[Virgin Islands]] in the [[Caribbean]]; and [[American Samoa]], [[Guam]], and the [[Northern Mariana Islands]] in the Pacific. Those born in the territories (except for American Samoa) possess US citizenship. These territories are considered separately in the Re.ViCa wiki.
== Schools in the United States ==
<!-- cover pre-primary, primary and secondary (all kinds including vocational)  -->
Children are required in most US states to attend school from the age of five or six until 16, 17 or 18 - generally bringing them through grade 12, or twelfth grade (the end of High School). This sequence is colloquially referred to as "K-12" education.


According to 2009 estimates, the largest contiguous state, [[California]], has 37 million people; and the next, Texas, has 25 million (2008). Nine states have a population of 10 million or more: [[California]], [[Texas]], [[New York]], [[Florida]], [[Illinois]], Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, and Georgia. Eight states have populations of less than 10 but more than 6 million. 33 states have populations less than 6 million - of these, 20 states have populations in the range of 1 to 3 million.  
In all, 86% of American schoolchildren enroll in the "Public" (publicly funded) school system. About 12% are enrolled in parochial or nonsectarian "Private" (non-publicly funded) schools, and 2% are homeschooled.


The current list of states with their own Re.ViCa entries resides at [[:Category:States of the United States]]. US regional sub-categories have been created for certain states with a high incidence of significant e-learning programmes, e.g. [[California]] and [[Colorado]]. Others may be added as activity is identified.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_education Public school curricula], funding, teaching, and other policies are set through locally elected school boards with jurisdiction over school districts, which may have many directives from state legislatures. School districts are usually separate from other local jurisdictions, with independent officials and budgets. Educational standards and standardised testing decisions are usually made by state governments, with curricula varying widely from district to district.  


=== The relevance of the US to European e-learning ===
Individual states, counties, and school districts have considerable leeway in how they choose to divide their school levels, so it is difficult to accurately describe an "average" child's standard progression through education. However, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_school#United_States all states have historically made a distinction] between two main genres of K-12 education and three genres of K-12 school.
* The genres of education are Primary and Secondary; and
* The genres of school are Elementary School, Middle or Junior High School, and High School


==== Do US ideas in e-learning transfer to Europe? ====
Elementary and Secondary school programmes comprise nearly 14,000 school districts and some 56 million students, attending roughly 99,000 public schools and 34,000 private schools. It would impossible to list all US schools here; however, see the Wikipedia [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_schools_in_the_United_States List of Schools in the United States] for links itemised by state and school district.


Many European analysts consider US universities - both large and small, public and private - more successful at developing and implementing substantial e-learning programmes than their European counterparts. Online learning in the US is indeed expanding at a remarkable and enviable pace: the average growth rate for online university enrolments has increased by roughly 13% per annum over the past seven years (compared with 2% for US "brick and mortar" enrolments). Other indicators of success include completion rates, programme sustainability over a number of years, and academic reputation.
Homeschooling is legal in all 50 US states, although the topic is at times controversial (as parents are not always considered fit to provide schooling which meets compulsory education standards). Homeschooling standards and requirements also vary widely among US states. Common reasons for adoption of homeschooling strategies include dissatisfaction with the quality of schooling available; dissatisfaction with moral, ethical or religious issues associated with a school; and/or inability of a student to participate due to time, financial or physical restraints (e.g. in the case of child athletes, celebrities and the disabled).


Researchers have (understandably) questioned why the success of e-learning in US universities does not transfer more readily to a European context. Is it the economy, the geography, the demographics, or the population density; the nature of the respective educational funding models; or something else entirely? Indeed, these are but a few of the differences that may contribute to the challenge of e-learning transfer. Consider also the vast differences in accreditation models, academic focus, relevant public policy, language/culture, and technology uptake. In a global culture where online degrees are rapidly acquiring credibility, and students have begun to actively pursue online degrees via overseas institutions, these are critical questions to consider when pondering the future of education in Europe.  
The decision to homeschool a child in the US may be interpreted as a statement of social, religious, political or other dissent.


While e-learning penetration in European countries may not yet match that typically seen across the US as a whole, it is certain that North American ideas in e-learning form worthy comparators, and in countless cases do see transfer to Europe (and beyond). For example, many of the early course/learning management systems which formulated our earliest understanding of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_virtual_learning_environments_1990s "online learning" in the mid-1990s] were developed in either America or Canada, e.g. LotusNotes, FirstClass, Blackboard and WebCT. A distinctly American company with American attitudes and products, Blackboard [[learning management systems]] remains in common usage across Europe (despite recent trends towards [[OER]] in the market). Institutions worldwide have sought to mirror the success of the US in exporting learning via the internet.
=== Pre-Primary ===
The terms "Preschool," "Prekindergarten," "Pre-K" or "Nursery School" may all be used to refer to earlier age-group education. There is no compulsory national Pre-Primary education requirement in the US.


There is also more general discussion of the "Americanisation of Education" seen in some European countries - which is too broad and controversial a topic to address here.
=== Elementary (Primary) ===
American children are required to attend six or seven years of Elementary School (generally comprising Kindergarten and grades 1-5 or 1-6). [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kindergarten Kindergarten] is a transitional year for students around the age of 5 or 6. Not all states make this year compulsory, though many do and offer this as a free educational year. First grade is the more official "first year" of primary school.


Whatever the ramifications, the past would suggest that European analysts might examine US e-learning trends in order to better understand (and possibly predict) directions for growth in their own countries.
=== Middle or Junior High School ===
Middle School is a period of schooling between Elementary and High School, viewed by many as a conceptual bridge between the two. It often shares resources with a larger Secondary School rather than occupy its own facilities. Middle School typically spans grades 6-8, while Junior High School (Junior High) spans grades 7 and 8 only. Middle School/Junior High School students are generally between 11 and 14 years old.


==== Is the relevance of the US or of its states? ====
=== High School ===
The majority of American students complete four years of High School (grades 9-12), graduating with a diploma around the age of 18. A small percentage of students opt to withdraw prior to graduation, permitted at either 16 or 17 depending on state of residence. These students may take a series of standardised tests (General Educational Development, or GED) and receive High School equivalency credentials if they perform well.


Hovering around 308.6 million as of early 2010, the population of the USA seems enormously large compared with that of most European countries. (For comparison, the population of the [[UK]] is estimated at 62 million, the [[Netherlands]] at 16.6 million, and [[Finland]] at 5.3 million.) Nevertheless, the federal structure of the US and the deregulated nature of its educational systems indicate that it is reasonable to look to the state level when studying e-learning in the US.  
In 2008, 87% of Americans over the age of 25 had graduated from High School. High School graduates may either enter the workforce or continue education, e.g. at a higher education institution.


Note that this "relevance" depends solely on comparing US states to discrete European ones - it is extremely difficult to compare and contrast the US and Europe as a whole (in e-learning or otherwise), for reasons including those identified in the previous section.
== Further and Higher Education ==


The population of the EU is now estimated at over 500 million, about 1.5 times that of the US, and its inhabitants speak over 170 languages (of which 23 are considered "official"). While the US itself has no "official" language, nearly all Americans speak English, and moreover share essentially similar cultural expectations. This (in conjunction with the US's underlying federal governance structure) often results in a velocity of propagation of ideas nationwide which is rarely replicated across the EU.
The American further and higher education systems, like the primary and secondary education systems, are largely decentralised - that is, unregulated by any national body. With a limited number of exceptions, the federal government does not directly regulate colleges and universities (although it may award them federal grants). It can therefore be difficult to make generalisations about the institutions in these sectors (without focusing on one individual US state at a time), though we have tried our best below.


As of April 2010 the Re.ViCa wiki includes entries for six US states: [[California]], [[Colorado]], [[Florida]], [[Hawaii]], [[Illinois]] and [[Utah]]. Five of these are relatively large, and each references several institutions of interest. If this level of analysis is deemed useful, perhaps in a later phase the Re.ViCa community will wish to extend coverage.
The term "Polytechnic" is not used as such in the US, though "Community Colleges" may be seen to occupy a similar educational niche - and are not unlike what some in other countries might call "University Colleges."


The current list of states covered is at [[:Category:States of the United States]].
=== Universities (and "Colleges") in the United States ===
The US higher education system is known to host some of the finest universities in the world. According to the Shanghai Jiao Tong University's [http://www.arwu.org/ Academic Ranking of World Universities], more than 30 of the highest-ranked 45 institutions are in the United States (as measured primarily by awards and research output).  


== United States education policy ==
In discussing post-secondary education in the US it is important to bear in mind that the definition of the term "college" does not align neatly with that used in most other countries discussed in this wiki.


As outlined in a [http://www2.ed.gov/about/overview/fed/role.html recent US Department of Education publication],
* '''Universities''' are, generally speaking, four-year institutions of higher education and research, awarding both undergraduate and postgraduate ("graduate") degrees.  
education is primarily a state and local responsibility in the United States, with most decisions made (and policies established) on that basis. It is states and communities, as well as public and private organisations of all kinds, that establish schools and colleges, develop curricula, and determine requirements for enrolment and graduation - not the federal (central) government. The structure of education finance in America reflects this predominant state and local role. Of an estimated $1.1 trillion being spent nationwide on education at all levels for school year 2009-2010, a substantial majority comes from state, local, and private sources. This is especially true at the elementary and secondary level, where about 89.5% of the funds will come from non-federal sources.
* '''Colleges''' are four-year, undergraduate institutions with an emphasis on taught courses, which may award the same undergraduate degrees as universities. Colleges may be part of a larger research university or may exist independently.


== United States education system ==
'''Americans do not always distinguish verbally between "college" and "university" – those attending a university would refer to this process as "going to college" while in pursuit of their undergraduate degree.'''


(sourced in part from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usa#Education)
It is difficult to identify the precise number of colleges and universities in the United States - in part because of varying definitions of the terms, and in part because of the diversity of potentially applicable institutions. Moreover, a US university need not be "accredited" in order to operate (see separate note on this topic). With these caveats in mind, a [http://www.utexas.edu/world/univ/alpha/ recent estimate] by the University of Texas at Austin counts 2,043 colleges and universities; the US Department of Education [http://ope.ed.gov/accreditation/ Database of Accredited Postsecondary Institutions and Programs] counts over 8,000 (community and vocational colleges are omitted in the first survey but included in the second); and the Chronicle of Higher Education 2009 [http://chronicle.com/section/Almanac-of-Higher-Education/141/ Almanac of Higher Education] counts 4,811.


As notes in the previous section, American "public" education is operated by state and local governments, and regulated by the United States Department of Education through restrictions on federal grants. In 2008, about 74 million people (both citizens and foreign nationals) were enrolled in American schools, colleges and universities.
Students provide transcripts of their High School grades and their results on a series of privately organised standardised tests when applying to American universities and colleges. Annual tuition fees are charged for higher education in almost all cases, and are often exorbitant compared to those found in other countries. (For the 2007–08 academic year, annual prices for undergraduate tuition, room, and board were estimated to be [http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=76 $11,578 at public institutions and $29,915 at private institutions].) Many students rely on student loans and scholarships from their university, the federal government, or a private lender.  


===Elementary and secondary education===
Students may choose to attend public or private institutions to complete their undergraduate degrees. The majority of public universities are operated by individual states and territories, usually as part of a "state university system". Each state supports at least one state university and several support many more. By a wide margin, these "state schools" tend to be the most affordable to residents from within that state.


Children are required in most US states to attend school from the age of five or six until 16, 17 or 18 - generally bringing them through grade 12, or twelfth grade, the end of high school.  
Those individuals completing undergraduate education at either a university or college may enter the workforce in a professional capacity or continue on to postgraduate ("graduate") study. In 2008, [http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/education/013618.html 29% of American adults] 25 and older had a bachelor's degree.


86% of American schoolchildren enroll in the "public" (publicly funded) system. About 12% are enrolled in parochial or nonsectarian "private" (non-publicly funded) schools, and 2% are home-schooled.
<!-- cover public and private -->


[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_education Public school curricula], funding, teaching, and other policies are set through locally elected school boards with jurisdiction over school districts with many directives from state legislatures. School districts are usually separate from other local jurisdictions, with independent officials and budgets. Educational standards and standardised testing decisions are usually made by state governments, with curricula varying widely from district to district.  
===(Community) Colleges in the United States===
US "Community Colleges" are two-year institutions of higher education (once commonly called "Junior Colleges"). Often state-based and public, most Community Colleges operate under a policy of open admission and may be similar to the Polytechnics or University Colleges found in other countries.  


Individual states, counties, and school districts have considerable leeway in how they choose to divide their school levels. Ordinarily, students complete elementary school and then move on to secondary school. American secondary schools are often divided into "middle schools" or "junior high schools" (typically grades 5-8 or 6-8, though this may vary) and "high schools" (typically grades 9-12). Middle school is seen as a conceptual bridge between elementary and high school; it does not usually occupy a separate campus or facility.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_colleges_in_the_United_States Many Community Colleges] are operated either by special districts that draw property tax revenue from the local community, as a division of a state university, or as sister institutions within a state-wide higher education system. In recent years, many Community Colleges have added online courses to their catalogues, and in some states have become hotbeds of e-learning activity.


In 2008, 87% of Americans over the age of 25 had graduated from high school. High school graduates may either enter the workforce or continue education, e.g. at a higher education institution. Those who do not have high school diplomas may obtain a high school level certification by taking a GED (a.k.a. the General Educational Development; General Equivalency Diploma; General Education Diploma) test. Many government institutions and universities regard the GED as the same as a high school diploma with respect to program eligibility and as a prerequisite for admissions.  
Community Colleges typically offer two-year "associates degrees" and/or trade certifications, as well as services to the local community (e.g. a library or job placement assistance). Some offer courses towards a four-year bachelor's degree and may guarantee admission to a partner university. While most enrollees proceed directly from High School to Community College (and are therefore ages 18-21), Community College is also an attractive venue for older American adults returning to education after a hiatus; professionals seeking further certification in their field (or another); or hobbyists looking for an inexpensive way to further their personal interests.


In recent years, the US has seen an explosion of virtual elementary and secondary schools, or "virtual schools" – see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_schools#United_States for more information.
'''US Community Colleges should not be confused with regular "Colleges"''', as the latter term is used uniquely in the US to refer to four-year teaching institutions which offer bachelor's degrees (see above). There are, however, other two-year institutions which would be referred to as "Community Colleges" even though they are not described as such by name; these have names like "institute of technology", "technical institute" or "technical college" and typically focus on training in technical and vocational skills.


== Higher education ==
== Education Reform ==  


The American higher education system, like the primary and secondary education systems, is largely decentralised. With a limited number of exceptions, the federal government does not directly regulate universities (although it may award them federal grants).  
A selection of "hot button"  issues targeted in the budget for [http://www2.ed.gov/about/overview/budget/budget12/index.html Fiscal Year 2012] reflect the general tenor of US educational reforms debated in the last five to ten years. These include:


The majority of public universities are operated by the states and territories, usually as part of a "state university system". Each state supports at least one state university and several support many more. Many private colleges and universities also exist. Tuition is charged at almost all American universities, and is often exorbitant compared to that which is more common in other countries. (For the 2007–08 academic year, annual prices for undergraduate tuition, room, and board were estimated to be [http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=76 $11,578 at public institutions and $29,915 at private institutions].) Many students rely on student loans and scholarships from their university, the federal government, or a private lender. By a wide margin, "state schools" tend to be the most affordable to residents from within that state. Every state has an entity designed to promote coordination and collaboration between higher education institutions.
* College access and completion
* Investing in early learning
* Accelerating the use of educational technology
* Supporting English language learners
* Supporting individuals with disabilities
* Strengthening the commitment to Native American, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian Education
* Improving productivity and efficiency
* Supporting rural education
* Improving Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Education


The US higher education system is considered by many to host some of the finest universities in the world. According to the Shanghai Jiao Tong University's [http://www.arwu.org/ Academic Ranking of World Universities], more than 30 of the highest-ranked 45 institutions are in the United States (as measured primarily by awards and research output).
Sector specifics are discussed below.


In 2008, [http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/education/013618.html 29% of American adults] 25 and older had a bachelor's degree.  
=== Schools ===
Approaches to improving public schooling have been the primary stakeholder concern ever since universal public education began to gain traction in US schools, in the middle of the nineteenth century. The Department of Education's official mission is to "promote student achievement and preparation for global competitiveness by fostering educational excellence and ensuring equal access", and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_reform reforms over the last 60 years] have included issues of civil rights, "progressive" education versus "cultural literacy", and the 1990s adoption of Outcome-Based Education (OBE) - at which time a set of standards-based National Education Goals were set by the US Congress. The standards-based reform movement culminated in the controversial No Child Left Behind Act of 2001.


===Accreditation in the US===
As of August 2011, issues frequently highlighted for potential reform include Repairing the Bush-era "No Child Left Behind" Act; Reauthorisation of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA); Addressing teacher cheating scandals in standardised testing; Teacher union reform; Expanding school day or school year; Validity of charter schools (in which public schools operate more like private ones); Validity of school choice, or "school vouchers" (in which parents may select which public school their child attends, or use a voucher to send them to a private one); Improving teacher quality/salary; Improving teacher training; Awarding performance bonuses ("merit pay") to teachers; English-only vs. bilingual education (allowing students to study in their native tongue - typically Spanish); Mainstreaming special education students (allowing special needs individuals to remain in "regular" schools); Content of curriculum standards and textbooks (which intersects with controversial issues like the teaching of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creationism creationism] in the classroom); and others.


It is difficult to summarise in brief the uniqueness and complexity of the academic accreditation process in the US.
For more information see the collected pieces on on "P-12" (pre-Kindergarten through twelfth grade) Reform on the ED web site at http://www.ed.gov/p-12-reform; or the useful Wikipedia discussion at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_reform.
 
* There is no single governmental accrediting body for American postsecondary educational institutions. Rather, the US Department of Education (ED) relies on 74 private and state-based accrediting agencies to provide oversight of member institutions.
 
* These agencies are divided into subgroups which are not considered equal among the "elite" in American academia: 16 "regional" accrediting agencies are regarded as the most selective, accrediting well-regarded institutions like Harvard University and Pennsylvania State. The remaining "national," "hybrid" and "programmatic" agencies may certify lesser-known and/or specialised entities such as [[Full Sail University]] and Texas Chiropractic College – whose students may find themselves unable to transfer earned academic credits into regionally accredited schools. (Transfer of credits among US universities is otherwise quite common.)
 
* Agencies awarded recognition by the US Department of Education are not the only ones permitted to provide university accreditation; they have simply met a certain set of ED criteria. '''Recognition is not a requirement for an accrediting body to operate legally''' - although without it, institutions it certifies cannot participate in federal student aid programs.
 
* Non-accredited institutions are often perceived as lacking in quality and rigor, and may be termed "diploma mills".
Naturally, most postsecondary institutions do seek accreditation, and those which achieve international standing normally have accreditation from the most rigorous ED agencies.


===Community Colleges in the United States===
=== Post-secondary ===  


US "community colleges" are state-based, public, two-year institutions of higher education (once commonly called "junior colleges").
Given the decentralised nature of the US HE system, federal reform might never reflect the kind of sweeping mandates periodically effected in other countries or unions. Nevertheless, certain proposed and actual reforms - largely addressing issues of affordability and access - pressed through or discussed from 2008-2011 are of great interest. Not all are exclusively higher-education specific. Some are detailed here:


Community colleges usually operate under a policy of "open admission" and are in some ways akin to the polytechnics found in many other countries. Many students view community college as an inexpensive alternative to a pricier four-year institution; others use community college as a vehicle for subsequent acceptance to such an institution.  
* Announcement regarding [http://www.ecampusnews.com/technologies/white-house-makes-grants-to-boost-online-learning/ online courses for Community Colleges] (September 2011). The long-awaited first installation of a $2 billion grant programme targeting Community College students through both industry partnerships and an expansion of free online courses. An initial $500 million in "workforce training programme" grants were scheduled for distribution after a rigorous application process that lasted almost a year. This followed on an announcement by President Obama in July 2009 to devote '''$12 billion over 10 years''' to improve programmes, courses, and facilities at [[US]] Community Colleges, with $500 million devoted to freely available online courses. Portions of this pledge were realised in the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010.


[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_colleges_in_the_United_States Most community colleges] are operated either by special districts that draw property tax revenue from the local community, as a division of a state university, or as a sister institution within a state-wide higher education system. In recent years, many community colleges have added online courses to their catalogues, and in some states have become hotbeds of e-learning activity.
* The [http://www.broadband.gov/ National Broadband Plan] (March 2010). Relevant in its potential to transform education in the US, as noted in the report itself. Despite early advances in the arena, for nearly 10 years the United States has lagged behind many other developed countries in the adoption of broadband technology. America's first National Broadband Plan recommends sweeping improvements to US broadband governance, infrastructure, affordability, and deployment, dedicating $15.5 billion to broadband deployment over the next decade.


Community colleges typically offer 2-year "associates degrees" and/or trade certifications, as well as services to the local community (e.g. library, job placement). Some offer courses towards a four-year bachelor’s degree and/or guarantee admission to a partner university.
* The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_Care_and_Education_Reconciliation_Act_of_2010 Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010] (March 2010). Included the Student Aid and Fiscal Responsibility Act, reforming the process by which American students receive much-needed loans to participate in higher education.


While most enrollees proceed directly from high school to community college, and are therefore quite young,  
* The [http://www.ed.gov/technology/netp-2010 National Educational Technology Plan 2010]". Outlined "ways in which information and communication technologies can be leveraged to help transform American education". It details [http://www.ed.gov/technology/netp-2010/goals-and-recommendations five specific goals] with recommendations (for states, districts, the federal government, and other stakeholders in the US education system) that address learning, assessment, teaching, infrastructure, and productivity. A wide variety of stakeholders played a role in developing the plan: see http://www.ed.gov/technology/netp-2010/how-plan-developed for details.
community college is also an attractive venue for American adults returning to education after a hiatus; professionals seeking further certification in their field (or another); or hobbyists looking for an inexpensive way to further their personal interests.


US "community colleges" should not be confused with regular "colleges", as the latter term is used uniquely in the US to refer to four-year teaching institutions which do offer bachelor's degrees (but are not attached to broader postgraduate institutions). Community colleges almost always have "community" in their name, e.g. Wytheville Community College (Virginia) or Red Rocks Community College ([[Colorado]]).
* The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) of 2009. Sought [http://www2.ed.gov/about/reports/annual/2009review.html "to get America on track and to return to being number one in the world in high school and college graduation rates, school readiness and overall academic achievement]." This included $98.2 billion in appropriations for the Department of Education, more than 1.5 times the Department’s entire appropriation for the previous year.


=== Colleges and Universities in the United States ===
* The Student Aid and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2009. [http://edlabor.house.gov/blog/2009/07/student-aid-and-fiscal-respons.shtml Goals included] "producing the most college graduates by 2020 by making college accessible and transforming the way our student loan programs operate." The bill never became law; link now defunct.


US undergraduate degrees in the US are typically awarded by degree-granting institutions in one of the following categories:


* Liberal Arts Colleges: Four-year, undergraduate institutions emphasising undergraduate study in the "liberal arts", leading to either a bachelor’s of arts or a bachelor’s of science (BA or BS) degree. A "liberal arts" curriculum may encompass literature, languages, philosophy, history, mathematics, and science. Graduates may enter the workforce in a professional capacity, or continue on to postgraduate study at another institution.
Read more about current issues in the realm of US Higher Education reform at the Teachnology, Inc. web site: http://www.teach-nology.com/highered/reform/


* Universities: Four-year institutions of higher education and research, awarding '''both undergraduate and postgraduate degrees'''.
===== The Bologna Process =====
''This section was included as relevant to Re.ViCa and has not been updated since first posting.''


In the absence of postgraduate study programmes, an American HEI is considered a "college" – a critical difference in terminology which can confuse newcomers to the world of US education. Americans often do not distinguish verbally between "college" and "university" – those attending a university would refer to this process as "going to college" while in pursuit of their undergraduate degree. (Note, though, that for historical reasons, a select number of US institutions (e.g. Dartmouth College or and The College of William & Mary) have retained the term "college" in their names even though they do offer postgraduate degrees.)
The average American academic remains unaware of the Bologna Process and its significance. Yet [http://www.ihep.org/assets/files/EYESFINAL.pdf a recent report] by the US-based Lumina Foundation chides:
 
As odd as it might seem, it is difficult to identify the precise number of "universities" in the United States - in part because of varying definitions of the term, and in part because of the diversity of potentially applicable institutions. Moreover, a US university need not be "accredited" in order to operate (see the note above on this topic).
 
With these caveats in mind, estimates fall in the thousands. A [http://www.utexas.edu/world/univ/alpha/ recent estimate] by the University of Texas at Austin counts 2,043 colleges and universities (in an inventory which omits community colleges). The US Department of Education [http://ope.ed.gov/accreditation/ Database of Accredited Postsecondary Institutions and Programs], on the other hand, counts over 8,000 institutions; their count includes community and vocational colleges. And the Chronicle of HE’s 2009 [http://chronicle.com/section/Almanac-of-Higher-Education/141/ Almanac of Higher Education] counts 4,811.
 
See the [[Programmes]] list for numerous Re.ViCa links to US postsecondary institutions, among others; or the [[:Category:United_States]] for US institutions only.
 
===Polytechnics in the US ===
 
The term "polytechnic" is not used as such in the US. There are, however, a variety of "institutes of technology", "technical institutes" and "technical colleges", which may be considered to occupy a similar educational niche.  Many of these have come to increasingly utilise distance and online learning in recent years, and may be of interest to European researchers. See also the section on "community colleges" above.
 
== Higher Education Reform ==
 
Given the decentralised nature of the US HE system, federal reform might never reflect the kind of sweeping mandates periodically effected in other countries or unions. Nevertheless, certain proposed and actual reforms (largely addressing issues of affordability and access) pressed through or discussed from 2008-2010 are of interest. Not all are exclusively higher-education specific. Some are detailed here:
 
* The [http://www.broadband.gov/ National Broadband Plan] (March 2010) - relevant in its potential to transform education in the US, as noted in the report itself. Despite early advances in the arena, for nearly 10 years the United States has lagged behind many other developed countries in the adoption of broadband technology. America's first National Broadband Plan recommends sweeping improvements to US broadband governance, infrastructure, affordability, and deployment, dedicating $15.5 billion to broadband deployment over the next decade.
 
* The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_Care_and_Education_Reconciliation_Act_of_2010 Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010] - which includes the Student Aid and Fiscal Responsibility Act, reforming the process by which American students receive much-needed loans to participate in higher education.
 
* The [http://www.ed.gov/technology/netp-2010 draft National Educational Technology Plan]" - not higher-education specific, but extremely relevant. Released on March 5 2010, the plan outlines "ways in which information and communication technologies can be leveraged to help transform American education". It details [http://www.ed.gov/technology/netp-2010/goals-and-recommendations five specific goals] with recommendations for states, districts, the federal government, and other stakeholders in the US education system that address learning, assessment, teaching, infrastructure, and productivity. A wide variety of stakeholders played a role in developing the new plan: see http://www.ed.gov/technology/netp-2010/how-plan-developed for details.
 
* The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) of 2009 – "[http://www2.ed.gov/about/reports/annual/2009review.html  with a goal to get America on track and to return to being number one in the world in high school and college graduation rates, school readiness and overall academic achievement]." This included $98.2 billion in appropriations for the Department of Education, more than 1.5 times the Department’s entire appropriation for the previous year.
 
* The Student Aid and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2009 – [http://edlabor.house.gov/blog/2009/07/student-aid-and-fiscal-respons.shtml whose goals include] "producing the most college graduates by 2020 by making college accessible and transforming the way our student loan programs operate. It will expand quality early education opportunities that will put more children on the path to success. It will strengthen community colleges and training programs to help build a highly-skilled, innovative, 21st century workforce ready for the rigors of a global economy."
 
* Announcement by President Obama in July, 2009 - A promise to devote $12 billion over 10 years to improve programs, courses, and facilities at [[US]] community colleges, with $500 million devoted to freely available online courses. As of April 2010 the future of most of these declarations was unclear (although portions were realised in the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010).
 
Read about numerous current issues in the realm of US Higher Education reform at the Teachnology, Inc. web site: http://www.teach-nology.com/highered/reform/
 
=== The Bologna Process ===
 
The average American academic remains unaware of the Bologna Process and its significance. Yet [http://www.ihep.org/assets/files/EYESFINAL.pdf a recent report] by the US-based Lumina Foundation chides:


:Former Secretary of Education, Margaret Spellings’ Commission on the Future of Higher Education paid no attention whatsoever to Bologna, and neither did the U.S. higher education community… Such purblind stances are unforgivable in a world without borders.  
:Former Secretary of Education, Margaret Spellings’ Commission on the Future of Higher Education paid no attention whatsoever to Bologna, and neither did the U.S. higher education community… Such purblind stances are unforgivable in a world without borders.  
Line 179: Line 160:
This report's author, [http://www.ihep.org/press-room/news_release-detail.cfm?id=62  Cliff Adelman] ([http://www.ihep.org/ Institute for Higher Education Policy]), is among numerous vocal proponents of US participation in a process similar to that set forth by Bologna. Lumina promotes [http://www.luminafoundation.org/our_work/tuning/Q_and_A-Bologna_and_Tuning.html  "Tuning"], explored in papers such as [http://go2.wordpress.com/?id=725X1342&site=gsed.wordpress.com&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ihep.org%2Fassets%2Ffiles%2FTheBolognaClub.pdf The Bologna Club: What U.S. Higher Education Can Learn from a Decade of European Reconstruction] - which set forth the goal that attainment of high-quality undergraduate degrees and credentials in the United States should increase to 60% by 2025.  
This report's author, [http://www.ihep.org/press-room/news_release-detail.cfm?id=62  Cliff Adelman] ([http://www.ihep.org/ Institute for Higher Education Policy]), is among numerous vocal proponents of US participation in a process similar to that set forth by Bologna. Lumina promotes [http://www.luminafoundation.org/our_work/tuning/Q_and_A-Bologna_and_Tuning.html  "Tuning"], explored in papers such as [http://go2.wordpress.com/?id=725X1342&site=gsed.wordpress.com&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ihep.org%2Fassets%2Ffiles%2FTheBolognaClub.pdf The Bologna Club: What U.S. Higher Education Can Learn from a Decade of European Reconstruction] - which set forth the goal that attainment of high-quality undergraduate degrees and credentials in the United States should increase to 60% by 2025.  


Adelman's efforts and those of others like him are not widely known. Bologna's spirit of harmonisation, unity and "work towards a common cause" is not often felt across US state borders, and there are few models of cross-border cooperation that even scratch the surface of the Bologna Process's goals.
Adelman's efforts and those of others like him are not widely known. Bologna's spirit of harmonisation, unity and "work towards a common cause" is not often felt across US state borders, and there are few models of cross-border cooperation that scratch the surface of Bologna Process-like goals.


As a separate issue, some European researchers have explored evidence of US hostility towards the Bologna Process itself, in terms of its perceived success in attracting overseas students who might otherwise pursue studies in the US.  As an increasing number of "geographically mobile" students choose European universities over American ones, some believe that Bologna is a seen as a threat – yet one that US officials have been unwilling to acknowledge or name. For one example of this research track, see Charlier and Croche's 2008 piece on [http://mesharpe.metapress.com/app/home/contribution.asp?referrer=parent&backto=issue,2,7;journal,9,24;linkingpublicationresults,1:110907,1 The Outcome of Competition Between Europe and the United States].
As a separate issue, some European researchers have explored evidence of US hostility towards the Bologna Process itself, in terms of its perceived success in attracting overseas students who might otherwise pursue studies in the US.  As an increasing number of "geographically mobile" students choose European universities over American ones, some believe that Bologna is a seen as a threat – yet one that US officials have been unwilling to acknowledge or name. For one example of this research track, see Charlier and Croche's 2008 piece on [http://mesharpe.metapress.com/app/home/contribution.asp?referrer=parent&backto=issue,2,7;journal,9,24;linkingpublicationresults,1:110907,1 The Outcome of Competition Between Europe and the United States].


== Administration and finance ==
== Administration and finance ==
(adapted from the US Department of Education web site, http://www2.ed.gov)
[[Image: Ed_gl_org_chart.gif|thumb|right|150px|2011 US Department of Education]]


(sourced largely from the US Department of Education web site, http://www2.ed.gov)
Established in 1980, the '''[http://www.ed.gov/ US Department of Education]''' ('''ED''', or externally '''USDE''') is the government agency that establishes policy for and administers most federal assistance to '''all sectors of US education.''' ED has 4,200 employees and a $63.7 billion budget; elementary and secondary programmes serve more than 14,000 school districts and 56 million students, who attend some 97,000 schools and 28,000 private schools. Department programmes also provide financial assistance to about 11 million post-secondary students. Many students attend private schools, colleges and universities, paid for with private funds.
 
=== The US Department of Education===
 
[[Image: Ed_gl_org_chart.gif|thumb|right|150px|2007 US Department of Education]]
 
US Congress established the [http://www.ed.gov/ US Department of Education] (ED, or externally USDE) on May 4, 1980. The Department of Education is administered by the United States Secretary of Education. Its mission is "to promote student achievement and preparation for global competitiveness by fostering educational excellence and ensuring equal access."


ED is the agency of the federal government that establishes policy for and administers most federal assistance to education. Its elementary and secondary programs serve more than 14,000 school districts and 56 million students, attending some 97,000 schools and 28,000 private schools. Department programmes also provide financial assistance to about 11 million postsecondary students.
It is always important to bear in mind the predominant state and local role in establishing American schools and colleges, developing curricula, and determining enrolment and graduation requirements. '''These tasks are not, for the most part, under the purview of ED''' - in other words, there are few national requirements in these areas. Of an estimated $1.13 trillion being spent nationwide on education at all levels for school year 2010-2011, a substantial majority (89%) come from state, local, and private sources.  


'''The US Department of Education does:'''
'''The US Department of Education (i.e. US federal government) does:'''


* Establish policies relating to federal financial aid for education, and administer distribution of those funds and monitor their use. Distribute financial aid to eligible applicants throughout the nation for early childhood, elementary, secondary and postsecondary education programmes.
* Establish policies relating to federal financial aid for education, and administer/monitor those funds at all levels.
* Collect data and oversee research on America’s schools, and disseminate this information to Congress, educators and the general public.
* Collect data, oversee schools research, and disseminate results to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Congress the US Congress], educators and the general public.
* Identify the major issues and problems in education and focus national attention on them.  Make recommendations for education reform, advising the president and implementing his/her education policies.
* Identify major issues, focus national attention on them, and make recommendations for education reform (advising the president and implementing education policies).
* Enforce federal statutes prohibiting discrimination in programmes receiving federal funds, and ensure equal access to education.
* Enforce federal statutes prohibiting discrimination in programmes receiving federal funds, and ensure equal access to education.


'''The US Department of Education does not:'''
'''The US Department of Education (i.e. US federal government) does not:'''


* Establish schools and colleges
* Establish schools and colleges
Line 208: Line 185:
* Set requirements for enrollment and graduation
* Set requirements for enrollment and graduation
* Determine state education standards
* Determine state education standards
* Develop or implement testing to measure whether states are meeting their education standards
* Develop or implement testing to measure whether states are meeting their own education standards


These are responsibilities handled by various states and districts, as well as by public and private organisations.
Notably for VISCED and Re.ViCa purposes, the Department of Education's [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/os/technology/index.html '''Office of Educational Technology] (OET)''' develops national educational technology policy, ensuring that programmes are coordinated and consistent across the federal government. OET released the US's first [http://www.ed.gov/technology/netp-2010 National Educational Technology Plan (NETP)] in March 2010 as described above.


(Note that in March 2010 [http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/14/education/14child.html President Obama announced] planned changes to the "No Child Left Behind" Program which may enforce new Federal standards; this section will be updated accordingly.)
=== Schools ===
The Department of Education's [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/oese/index.html '''Office of Elementary and Secondary Education'''] (OESE) directs, coordinates, and recommends policies for state and local educational agencies, helps ensure equal access to services (particularly for underprivileged and underrepresented children), and provides financial assistance to a select number of local educational agencies.


====The Office of the Under Secretary (OUS)====
OESE offers nearly 200 programmes, addressing a range of issues such as: Hurricane Help for Schools, Academic Improvement and Teacher Quality Programs, School Support and Technology Programs, Student Achievement and School Accountability Programs, and many more. Programmes are administered through numerous offices, e.g. the Office of Indian [Native American] Education and the Office of Migrant Education. (Note that this is only a fragment of a much longer list, and that programmes are not guaranteed funding on an annual basis.)


ED oversees a wide variety of offices charges with various diverse tasks. The [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/index.html?src=oc Office of the Under Secretary] (OUS) oversees policies, programmes, and activities related to postsecondary education, vocational and adult education, and federal student aid. It consists of the following subdivisions: Office of Postsecondary Education (OPE); Office of Vocational and Adult Education (OVAE); Office of Federal Student Aid (FSA); President's Advisory Board on Tribal Colleges and Universities (WHITCU); and President's Advisory Board on Historically Black Colleges and Universities (WHIHBCU). These are examined in brief below.
=== Post-secondary ===
Federal regulation is critical in the area of student financial aid (which provides loans to students for post-secondary tuition).


===== The Office of Postsecondary Education (OPE) =====
The '''[http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/index.html Office of the Under Secretary]''' (OUS) oversees policies, programmes, and activities related to post-secondary education, vocational and adult education, and federal student aid.


The [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ope/index.html Office of Postsecondary Education] formulates federal postsecondary education policy and administers over 40 programmes that address critical national needs in support of its mission: to increase access to quality postsecondary education.  
The '''[http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ope/index.html Office of Postsecondary Education]''' (OPE) formulates federal post-secondary education policy and administers over 40 programmes to increase access to quality post-secondary education. One of the OPE's primary programmes of relevance is the [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ope/fipse/welcome.html Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education] (FIPSE). FIPSE's main activity each year is conducting the [http://www2.ed.gov/programs/fipsecomp/index.html Comprehensive Program], a grant programme intended to support innovative, replicable post-secondary education improvement projects. FIPSE also administers international consortia programmes, co-funded by foreign government partners, such as the [http://www2.ed.gov/programs/fipseec/index.html European Union-United States Atlantis Program] which provides funding for joint or dual undergraduate degrees in a wide range of academic and professional disciplines.  


OPE includes two major organisational components:
The '''[http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/index.html Office of Vocational and Adult Education]''' (OVAE) administers and coordinates programmes related to adult education and literacy, career and technical education, and Community Colleges.


* [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ope/ppi.html Policy, Planning, and Innovation] (PPI) develops postsecondary education policy and legislative proposals and is responsible for budget formulation and forecasting for programmess administered by OPE.
The '''[http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/fsa/index.html Office of Federal Student Aid]''' (FSA) provides critical financial assistance to students enrolled in post-secondary educational institutions. Students apply to this agency for aid, and repay loans to it directly; institutions demonstrating inferior quality may become ineligible to educate students receiving federal student loans.


* [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ope/hep.html Higher Education Programs] (HEP) administers programmes that increase access to postsecondary education for disadvantaged students, strengthen the capacity of colleges and universities that serve a high percentage of disadvantaged students, provide teacher and student development resources, and increase expertise in foreign languages and international studies.
== Quality assurance ==


Additionally, [http://www2.ed.gov/admins/finaid/accred/index.html Accreditation and State Liaison] (ASL) has responsibility for the accrediting agency recognition process and for the coordination of activities between states and the US Department of Education that impact institutional participation in the federal financial assistance programs. The [http://www2.ed.gov/about/bdscomm/list/naciqi.html National Advisory Committee on Institutional Quality and Integrity] provides recommendations to the Secretary of Education regarding the recognition of postsecondary accrediting agencies.
<!-- subdivide as necessary - QA for HE is usually very different from QA for colleges  -->


See http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ope/programs.html for a full list of OPE programmes.
As described by the Department of Education's [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/edlite-index.html US Network for Education Information] (USNEI), quality assurance takes several forms in the US system. The approval of institutions and programmes is generally '''undertaken by state agencies and accrediting agencies''', with the latter also responsible for establishing and maintaining academic and administrative standards. Professional and academic disciplinary associations also play a role in influencing and assessing quality. Educational potential and outcomes are measured by a wide range of surveys, studies, tests, and other assessments at the national, regional, state and institutional levels.


======FIPSE======
Various documents outlining assessment, evaluation, and standards activities in US education at all levels can be reviewed at http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/edlite-structure-us.html. The site also offers overviews of associates, bachelor's, and postgraduate degrees.


One of the US [[Office of Postsecondary Education]]'s primary programmes is the [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ope/fipse/welcome.html Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education] (FIPSE). FIPSE's main activity each year is conducting the [http://www2.ed.gov/programs/fipsecomp/index.html Comprehensive Program], a grant programme intended to support innovative, replicable postsecondary education improvement projects.
See also these general USNEI reports for further information:
* [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/accred-fed.doc Federal Recognition and Approval] - on the nature and limitations of the federal role in recognising accrediting agencies and in approving institutions
* [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/accred-state.doc State Approval of Schools and Postsecondary Institutions] - on the process of licensing or chartering educational providers by state authorities
* [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/qualassurance.doc Other Quality Assurance Provisions] - on additional quality assurance activities in the United States.


FIPSE also administers four international consortia programmes, co-funded by foreign government partners. Programmes support multi-institutional collaboration; student exchange; faculty cooperation and exchange; shared and common curricula; mutual recognition of credits; acquisition of host country languages; and apprenticeships and other work activities. The current "special focus" international competitions are:
=== Schools ===
The US Department of Education [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/edlite-evaluation.html does not have the authority] to accredit private or public elementary or secondary schools; nor does it recognise schools-level accrediting bodies.  


* The [http://www2.ed.gov/programs/fipseec/index.html European Union-United States Atlantis Program] - provides funding for joint or dual undergraduate degrees in a wide range of academic and professional disciplines.  
The US does not use national examinations to determine graduation from school or access to further studies, and there is no national curriculum on which to base such examinations. School curricula are set by local school districts, private schools, and homeschooling parents with reference to state standards and post-secondary requirements.  


* The [http://www2.ed.gov/programs/fipsenortham/index.html Program for North American Mobility in Higher Education] - provides funding for institutional cooperation and student exchange among colleges and universities in the United States, Canada, and Mexico.  
However, there is considerable commonality across the US education system despite the absence of legally enforced national curricula or examinations. Common evaluation and assessment standards and tools are the result of the pressures of the competitive academic marketplace, the expectations and requirements of employers and state agencies, and the standards required by accrediting agencies and professional and research associations.


* The [http://www2.ed.gov/programs/fipsebrazil/index.html US-Brazil Higher Education Consortia Program] - sponsors projects promoting institutional cooperation and student mobility between the United States and Brazil.
For further information, USENEI provides these relevant schools report:


* The [http://www2.ed.gov/programs/fipserussia/index.html United States-Russia Program] - supports consortia of institutions of higher education to promote cooperation in education and science between the United States and Russia.
* [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/accred-school.doc School-Level Accreditation] - the accreditation process at the primary and secondary education levels and provides links to accrediting agencies recognised by state governments and other authorities
* [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/edlite-evaluation.html Structure of U.S. Education: Evaluation and Assessment] - provides information on common US grading and credit systems as well as evaluation and standardised tests


Read more about FIPSE’s programmes at http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ope/fipse/brochure.html
=== Post-secondary ===
As in other US educational sectors, Quality Assurance in higher education is not typically overseen at the national level.
[http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/edlite-evaluation.html Post-secondary or tertiary curricula] are determined by individual institutions with reference to accreditation requirements, professional requirements, and the expectations of postgraduate programmes and employers.


=====The Office of Vocational and Adult Education (OVAE)=====
It is difficult to summarise in brief the uniqueness and complexity of the academic accreditation process in the US.
The [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/index.html Office of Vocational and Adult Education] (OVAE) administers and coordinates programmes related to adult education and literacy, career and technical education, and community colleges.
* There is no single governmental accrediting body for US post-secondary educational institutions. Rather, ED relies on 74 private and state-based accrediting agencies to provide oversight of member institutions.
* These agencies are divided into 16 "regional" accrediting agencies (regarded as the most selective), plus a number of "national," "hybrid" and "programmatic" agencies which may certify lesser-known and/or specialised entities.
* Agencies awarded recognised by the Department of Education are not the only ones permitted to provide university accreditation; they have simply met a certain set of ED criteria. '''Recognition is not a requirement for an accrediting body to operate legally''' - although without it, institutions it certifies '''cannot participate in federal student aid programmes'''.
* Non-accredited institutions are often perceived as lacking in quality and rigor, and may be termed "diploma mills".


OVAE oversees:
Within ED, the [http://www2.ed.gov/admins/finaid/accred/index.html Accreditation and State Liaison] (ASL) has responsibility for the accrediting agency recognition process and for coordinating activities between states and ED that impact institutional participation in the federal financial assistance programmes. A [http://www2.ed.gov/about/bdscomm/list/naciqi.html National Advisory Committee on Institutional Quality and Integrity] provides recommendations to the Secretary of Education regarding the recognition of post-secondary accrediting agencies.
* The Division of Adult Education and Literacy
* The Division of Academic and Technical Education
* US Community Colleges


===== Office of Federal Student Aid (FSA)=====
For those seeking further information, USNEI provides these post-secondary reports:
The [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/fsa/index.html Office of Federal Student Aid] (FSA) directs, coordinates, and recommends policies for programmes that are designed to:
* [http://www2.ed.gov/admins/finaid/accred/accreditation_pg6.html#NationallyRecognized Nationally Recognised Accrediting Agencies] - the U.S. Department of Education's directory of federally recognised accrediting agencies, both regional and national
* [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/accred-postsec.doc Postsecondary Accreditation] - describes the accreditation process at the tertiary level, and provides links to recognised accrediting agencies which are members of the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA)
* [http://www.chea.org/Directories/index.asp CHEA Directory of Recognised Accrediting Organisations] - the Council on Higher Education Accreditation's directory of recognised accrediting agencies
* [http://www.aspa-usa.org/ Association of Specialised and Professional Accreditors] (ASPA) - national association of accreditation agencies for regulated professions
* [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/fraud.doc Diploma Mills and Fraud] - information and links on the problems of unaccredited institutions and bogus accreditors in the US


* Provide financial assistance to eligible students enrolled in postsecondary educational institutions.
== Information society ==
* Deliver grants, loans, and work-study assistance to nearly nine million students through approximately 6,000 postsecondary institutions, 4,800 lenders, and 35 guarantee organisations.
<!-- overview, focussing on laws, statistics, rankings, ministries, agencies and initiatives  -->
* Collect more than $150 million in outstanding loans with data systems that track 93 million student loans and 15 million Pell Grants.
''Details about certain legislation, agencies and initiatives have been covered in previous sections.''


===== The White House Initiative on Tribal Colleges and Universities (WHITCU)=====
After an initial period of sustained leadership in the areas of computer science, internet development and broadband uptake, the US is now widely considered to be stagnating in technology uptake and usage. According to the World Economic Forum (WEF)'s 2011 report, the [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/04/13/world-economic-forum-technology-use-us_n_848566.html US finished fifth] in a survey of the 138 countries that make up 98.8 percent of the world's GDP (ranking 24th in percentage of households with a personal computer). The WEF measured aspects of technology usage including business and regulatory climates for IT development and interest in and use of technology by the government, individuals and businesses.  
The [http://www2.ed.gov/about/inits/list/whtc/edlite-index.html Office of the White House Initiative on Tribal Colleges and Universities] (WHITCU) ensures that the US's [http://www2.ed.gov/about/inits/list/whtc/edlite-tclist.html Tribal Colleges and Universities] (TCU) are fully recognised and have full access to federal programs benefiting other higher education institutions.


There are 36 federally recognised Tribal Colleges and Universities in the United States, serving approximately 30,000 full- and part-time students. They offer two-year associate degrees in over 200 disciplines (and some provide bachelor's and master's degree). They also offer 200 vocational certificate programs. The WHITCU web site notes:
The US also faces a significant gap in residential broadband use that breaks down along race, income, education levels and other socio-economic factors.


:Tribal Colleges and Universities are both integral and essential to their communities. They are often the only postsecondary institutions within some of our Nation's poorest rural areas. Tribal Colleges and Universities serve a variety of people, from young adults to senior citizens, American Indians to non-American Indians. They also provide crucial services and add hope to communities that suffer high rates of poverty and unemployment.
Recent [http://pewinternet.org Pew findings] report that 77% of American adults use the internet ([http://pewinternet.org/Static-Pages/Trend-Data/Whos-Online.aspx Dec 2010]); 83% of Americans own mobile phones, while just 57% own a personal computer ([http://pewinternet.org/Trend-Data/Device-Ownership.aspx May 2011]).


===== White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities (WHIHBCU)=====
A variety of offices, agencies and non-profits monitor and direct US activity and strategy in the information society.
The [http://www2.ed.gov/about/inits/list/whhbcu/edlite-index.html White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities] seeks to strengthen the capacity of [http://www2.ed.gov/about/inits/list/whhbcu/edlite-list.html Historically Black Colleges and Universities] (HBCUs) to provide excellence in education. A fact sheet available on the web site notes:
* The [http://www.fcc.gov/ Federal Communications Commission], an independent US government agency, regulates interstate and international communications by radio, television, wire, satellite and cable. (As noted above, it has unveiled the first US [http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN2224640220100223 National Broadband Plan] in March 2010, reinforcing the notion that all Americans are entitled to "affordable access to robust and reliable broadband products and services".)
* The Department of Education’s [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/os/technology/index.html Office of Educational Technology] (OET) supports the use of technology in education. (The March 2010 "National Education Technology Plan" has been discussed above.)
* The [http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/e-gov/ Office of E-Government & Information Technology] is part of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB).
* Founded in 1969, the [http://www.nascio.org National Association of State Chief Information Officers] (NASCIO) represents state chief information officers and information technology executives and managers from the states, territories, and the District of Columbia. The primary state members are senior officials from state government who have executive-level and statewide responsibility for information technology leadership.
* The [http://www.cio.gov/ Chief Information Officers] (CIO) Council serves as the principal interagency forum for improving practices in the design, modernisation, use, sharing, and performance of Federal Government agency information resources.
* The [http://it.usaspending.gov/ IT Dashboard], launched in June 2009, allows the American people to monitor IT investments across the federal government.


:The nation’s Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) hold a 130-year record of significantly increasing the percentage of black Americans who are able to attend college, effectively creating cohorts of black leadership, and helping achieve economic mobilisation of African-American communities. Many HBCUs specialise in teaching students from disadvantaged backgrounds.  
This is not a comprehensive list - and in particular does not identify any state or regional programmes. See http://www.usa.gov/Government/State_Local/Technology.shtml for more related agencies/organisations.


===== Office of Educational Technology (OET)=====
== ICT in education initiatives ==


(sourced from http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/os/technology/index.html)
=== Virtual initiatives in schools ===
<!-- include virtual schools, virtual classes and other initiatives  -->


The Department of Education’s [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/os/technology/index.html Office of Educational Technology] (OET) provides leadership for maximising technology’s contribution to improving education at all levels. OET develops national educational technology policy, ensures that the department's programmes are coordinated and consistent, and supports efforts across the federal government. OET leverages the best modern technology to:
Online education in the US has gained considerable traction over the last 15 years - seemingly more so than in any other country. A major report from the International Association for K-12 Online Learning (iNACOL), [http://www.inacol.org/research/docs/iNCL_NationalPrimerv22010-web.pdf A National Primer on K-12 Online Learning] (Second Edition), estimates that over 1.5 million American K-12 students were engaged in online and blended learning for the 2009-2010 school year (out of approximately 55.2 million students enrolled ).This represents roughly 3% of the US K-12 population.


* Support progress toward college and career-ready standards and rigorous assessments that will improve both teaching and learning;
This relatively small figure belies the scope and nature of the programmes now available. Options vary from state to state, school district to school district, and even from school to school. As the Primer notes, whether a student has the option to participate in "supplemental" (i.e. single) courses or full-time online programmes remains a matter of state policy and local laws, "with a few states providing opportunities for most students, a few states providing almost no opportunities, and most states falling somewhere in the middle". Moreover, iNACOL and others acknowledge their ongoing struggle to survey data in this relatively new and rapidly changing arena; there is no single authority to whom any of the schools listed in this survey must report, and relevant data is not always made available to the public.
* Connect and support teachers and ensure all students have access to highly effective teaching;
* Engage students and turn around low-performing schools; and
* Improve student learning, teacher performance, and college and career readiness through enhanced data systems.


OET released the National Educational Technology Plan (NETP) in March 2010; see the "Reforms" section above for more information.
As of 2010, supplemental or full-time online learning opportunities were available to students in 48 of the 50 US states. 38 states had state virtual schools or state-led online initiatives (with a 39th set to open in 2011); 27 states plus Washington, DC had full-time online schools serving students statewide; and 20 states were providing both supplemental and full-time online learning options statewide (but not as part of a state virtual school). This can be compared to 2001, during which approximately 10 states had state virtual schools and even fewer offered other online education options.
The three main types of US virtual school are summarised in brief below, as outlined in [http://www.ecs.org/html/Document.asp?chouseid=9014 Keeping Pace With Online Learning: An Annual Review of Policy and Practice], Evergreen Education Group (2010). Note that not all schools fit neatly into one of the slots below, but without this kind of rough categorisation it would be exceedingly difficult to approach the vast array of US virtual schools.


See http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/os/technology/techreports.html for a list of OET's previous research outputs.
An excellent pictorial summary of the current position in each US state is provided annually by the iNACOL 'Keeping Pace With K-12 Online Learning' Reports mentioned above.  
 
== Quality assurance ==


Quality Assurance in US Education is not typically overseen at the federal level. The matter is discussed by the [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/edlite-index.html US Network for Education Information] (USNEI), which reports:


:Quality assurance takes several forms in the U.S. education system.  The approval of institutions and programs is generally undertaken by state agencies and accrediting agencies, with the latter also responsible for the establishment and maintenance of academic and administrative standards.  Professional and academic disciplinary associations also play a role in influencing and assessing quality.  Educational potential, progress, and outcomes, as well as inputs and outputs, are measured by surveys, studies, tests, and other assessments at the national, regional, state and institutional levels.
Click here for the VISCED [[typology of US virtual schools]].


Various documents outlining assessment, evaluation, and standards activities in U.S. education at all levels can be reviewed at http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/edlite-structure-us.html. The site also offers overviews of associates, bachelor’s, and postgraduate degrees - though these are not federally regulated.
Click here for the full VISCED list of [[:Category:Virtual_schools_in_the_US|Virtual schools in the US]].


USNEI hosts a web site on Accreditation and Quality Assurance across US education. Fact sheets and URLs address the separate issues of:


* [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/accred-school.doc School-Level Accreditation] - the accreditation process at the primary and secondary education levels and provides links to accrediting agencies recognised by state governments and other authorities.
==== US state virtual schools - overview====
* [http://www2.ed.gov/admins/finaid/accred/accreditation_pg6.html#NationallyRecognized Nationally Recognised Accrediting Agencies] - the U.S. Department of Education's directory of federally recognised accrediting agencies, both regional and national.
* Operate in 38 states
* [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/accred-postsec.doc Postsecondary Accreditation] - describes the accreditation process at the tertiary level, and provides links to recognised accrediting agencies which are members of the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA).
* Are state-led online learning initiatives, with course enrollment ranging from several thousand to 16,000 for 2009-10
* [http://www.chea.org/Directories/index.asp CHEA Directory of Recognised Accrediting Organisations] - the Council on Higher Education Accreditation's directory of recognised accrediting agencies.
* Boast 450,000 "course enrollments" nationwide, i.e. in which one student takes one course
* [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/accred-fed.doc Federal Recognition and Approval] - the nature and limitations of the federal role in recognising accrediting agencies and in approving institutions.
* Often provide local school districts with '''supplemental online courses''', as well as online learning expertise and thought leadership for their own schools
* [http://www.aspa-usa.org/ Association of Specialised and Professional Accreditors] (ASPA) - national association of accreditation agencies for regulated professions.
* Have '''students who study online part-time only''' (taking "supplemental" online courses while physically enrolled elsewhere)
* [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/accred-state.doc State Approval of Schools and Postsecondary Institutions] - the process of licensing or chartering educational providers by state authorities.
* Saw enrollment increase by nearly 40% from 2008-09 to 2009-10, though most gains came from the states of North Carolina and Florida only
* [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/qualassurance.doc Other Quality Assurance Provisions] - additional quality assurance activities in the United States.
* Have virtual school enrollments exceeding 10,000 for 2009-10 in eight different states (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Louisiana, Michigan, North Carolina and South Carolina)
* [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/fraud.doc Diploma Mills and Fraud] - information and links on the problems of unaccredited institutions and bogus accreditors in the US.
* Are usually funded by legislative appropriation


== USA's HEIs in the information society ==
Click here for the VISCED list of [[:Category:US statewide virtual schools|US statewide virtual schools]] - this includes both "state virtual schools" as described above, and any virtual school for which state residents are eligible.


Education in the US has seen rapid uptake of learning technology in all spheres, seen in many areas including the development of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_schools virtual schools], a longstanding tradition of computer-based training among corporations, and – more relevant to Re.ViCa – in the increasing popularity of hybrid and online university courses. While only those higher education programmes deemed sizable, significant or otherwise "notable" in e-learning terms have their own entries in the Re.ViCa wiki, one has the sense that not a single US university remains which does not offer online courses.
====US multi-school-district full-time online schools - overview====
* Operate in 27 states (each has at least one)
* '''Have few or no part-time students'''; most have enrollment of a few hundred to several thousand
* Usually attract students from across an entire state, so are found in those states that permit students to enroll across district lines
* Are typically charter schools (i.e. special publicly funded schools operating under their own charters/standards, attended by student choice)
* Are usually affiliated with a private national organisation e.g. Connections Academy, K12 Inc., Advanced Academics, or Insight Schools
* Are often funded via state public education funds that follow the student


The USA has a complex structure of HE e-learning providers, including organisations offering both face-to-face and e-learning (usually blended) provision via different subsidiaries. There are numerous universities offering courses exclusively online; some have developed via conventional "brick-and-mortar" institutions, while others have evolved from traditional "correspondence (distance-learning) schools". While many online universities target adult and military learners, some young American students simply prefer online courses for scheduling and financial convenience. In 2008 when global oil costs (and thus US fuel costs) rose astronomically, many schools saw surges in online enrolment as students decided that commuting had become too expensive.
Click here for the VISCED list of [[:Category:US_multi-school-district_virtual_schools|US multi-school-district virtual schools]].


In terms of blended/e-learning provision, some players of note in the US include:
Click here for the VISCED list of [[:Category:US_charter_schools|US charter schools]].


*The  [[University of Phoenix]] (UOP), with over 109,000 attending via the Internet through the University’s Online Campus (out of over 213,000 students total as of May 2004). Despite the public-sounding nature of the name, UOP is a private, for-profit institution, which has been a global driver of adult-oriented online learning in the past decade.
====US single school district programmes - overview ====
* The [[University of Maryland University College]] (UMUC), with over 110,000 online enrolments spread over 540 distinct courses online. UMUC is an actual public university, with a physical campus.
* Are represented by only 11 well-established programmes nationwide
* [http://www.mit.edu/ MIT], known in particular for its [[OpenCourseWare]] initiative
* Serve only students who reside within a single, local district of residence
* Serve '''mostly supplemental students''' (though some serve full-time students)
* Are often focused on credit recovery or at-risk students
* Make up the fastest growing segment of K-12 online learning


There are many more. The [http://revica.europace.org/Re.ViCa%20Online%20Handbook.pdf Re.ViCa Handbook] offers a "World Tour" overview of notable US institutions when it comes to e-learning; see also the Re.ViCa wiki's [http://www.virtualschoolsandcolleges.eu/index.php/Category:United_States United States] category for US institutions only; or the section below for a longer list.
There are additionally a number of virtual schools run by consortia or postsecondary institutions, i.e. some which are not state, multi-district or single district schools.


=== Towards the information society ===
Click here for the VISCED list of [[:Category:US_single-school-district_virtual_schools|US single-school-district virtual schools]].


The US has long been considered one of the most technologically powerful nations in the world. Nevertheless, recent concerns about the quality of US primary education, broadband infrastructure, security against terrorist attacks, and ability to maintain "fair" foreign policy agreements have cast doubt as to whether the country will indeed be equipped to lead in the new "information society".
====Possible US Exemplars====


In the past decade, the US's driving role in information manipulation via technology-related developments such as internet navigation (Yahoo, Google), social media tools (e.g. Facebook, Twitter), citizen media (blogs, podcasts, YouTube), and of course learning management systems (e.g. Blackboard), have seemingly reinforced its reputation as it has positioned itself to maintain its position as a world leader. Moreover, the current administration has unveiled a series of internet- and education-related initiatives which promise a solid foundation moving forward.
* [[Agora Cyber Charter School]]
* [[Alabama ACCESS Distance Learning]] (State Virtual School)
* [[City of Angels Virtual Academy]] (COAVA)
* [[Cook County Sheriff’s Department Virtual High School]]
* [[Electronic Classroom of Tomorrow]]
* [[Florida Virtual School]] (FLVS)  
* [[Hope Online Learning Academy]]
* [[Idaho Digital Learning Academy]] (IDLA)
* [[Illinois Virtual High School]]
* [[Jefferson County JCPSeSchool]] 
* [[Louisiana Virtual School]] (LVS)
* [[Mesa Distance Learning Program]] (MDLP)
* [[Michigan Virtual School]] (MVS)
* [[Minnesota Virtual High School]] (MVHS)
* [[Mississippi Virtual Public School]]
* [[North Carolina Virtual Public School]] (NCVPS)
* [[Omaha Public Schools eLearning]] (OPS)
* [[Open High School of Utah]] (OHSU)
* [[Pennsylvania Cyber Charter School]]


=== Information society strategy ===
* [[Primavera Online High School]]
* [[Silver State Charter Schools]]
* [[South Carolina Virtual School Program]] (SCVSP)
* [[Utah Electronic High School]] (EHS)
* [[Virtual High School Global Consortium]] (VHS)
* [[21st Century Cyber Charter School]]


A variety of offices, agencies and non-profits monitor and direct US activity and strategy in the information society.
====Towards a Comprehensive List of US Virtual Schools (in progress)====
''All schools identified as "notable" in the early phases of VISCED are included below. The list is representative but not comprehensive, given the nature of the US. Virtual schools for the under-14s are deemed out of scope.''


* The [http://www.fcc.gov/ Federal Communications Commission], an independent US government agency, regulates interstate and international communications by radio, television, wire, satellite and cable. (As noted above, it has unveiled the first US [http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN2224640220100223 National Broadband Plan] in March 2010, reinforcing the notion that all Americans are entitled to "affordable access to robust and reliable broadband products and services".)
# [[21st Century Cyber Charter School]] (Pennsylvania)
# [[Academy Online High School]] (Colorado)
<!-- cannot find so commenting out for now# [[Achieve Online]] (California)-->
# [[ACE Digital Academy]] (Ohio)
# [[ACHIEVEk12]] (Colorado)
# [[Achievement House Cyber Charter School]] (Pennsylvania)
# [[Advanced Academics Online School]] (Oklahoma)
# [[AGVI Academy for Gifted Youth]] (California)
# [[Agave Distance Learning]] (Arizona)
# [[Agora Cyber Charter School]] (Pennsylvania)
# [[Akron Digital Academy]] (Ohio)
# [[Alabama ACCESS Distance Learning]] (State Virtual School)
<!--wrong age group # [[Alaska Virtual Academy]] (AKVA) -->
# [[Alaska Virtual School]]
# [[Alaska's Learning Network]]
<!--distance, not online # [[American High School]] (Florida)-->
<!--# [[Anchorage School District]] (Alaska)-->
<!--# [[Ann Arbor Virtual School]] (Michigan)-->
# [[Andover eCademy]] (Kansas)
# [[Anoka Hennepin Compass On-Line]]  (Minnesota)
# [[Another Choice Virtual Charter School]] (Idaho)
# [[Apex Learning High School]]
# [[Appleton eSchool]] (Wisconsin)
# [[APS Online]] (Colorado)
# [[Arizona Connections Academy]]
# [[Arizona Online Instruction]]
# [[Arizona Virtual Academy]]
<!--# [[Arizona Virtual Investigation School]]-->
# [[Arizona Virtual School]]
<!--  wrong age range # [[Arkansas Virtual Academy]] (ARVA)-->
# [[Arkansas Virtual High School]]
# [[ASPIRA Bilingual Cyber Cyber School]] (Pennsylvania)
# [[AZ2020 Online Academy]] (Arizona)
# [[Basehor-Linwood Virtual School]] (Kansas)
# [[Beacon Academy of Nevada]]
# [[Bethel Online Academy]] (Washington)
# [[Blue Sky Online Charter School]]  (Minnesota)
# [[Blueprint High School]] (Arizona)
# [[Boulder Universal]] (Colorado)
# [[Branson School Online]] (Colorado)
# [[Brigham Young University Independent Study]] (Utah)
# [[Buckeye On-Line School for Success]] (Ohio)
# [[California Pacific Charter Schools]] (California)
# [[California Virtual Academies]]
<!-- wrong level; may have closed? # [[Campbell County Virtual School]] (Wyoming)-->
# [[Canon Online Academy]] (Colorado)
# [[Capistrano Connections Academy]] (CapoCA) (California)
# [[Cardington-Lincoln Local Digital Academy]] (Ohio)
# [[Chesterfield County Public Schools Online]] (Virginia)
# [[Central California Connections Academy]] (California)
# [[Central Pennsylvania Digital Learning Foundation]] (Pennsylvania)
# [[Chester Area Cyber School]] (South Dakota)
# [[Chicago Virtual Charter School]] (Illinois)
<!-- too young # [[Cimarron Elementary School ]] (Texas)-->
# [[Christa McAuliffe Academy]] (Oregon)
# [[Cincinnati Virtual High School]] (Ohio)
# [[City of Angels Virtual Academy]]
# [[CCSD Virtual High School]] (Nevada)
# [[CK Online Academy]] (Washington)
# [[Cobb Virtual Academy]] (Georgia)
<!-- wrong ages # [[Colorado Calvert Academy]] (Colorado)-->
# [[Colorado Connections Academy]]
# [[Colorado Distance and Electronic Learning Academy]] (CDELA)
# [[Colorado Online Learning]]
# [[Colorado Cyber]]
# [[Colorado Virtual Academy]]
# [[Columbia Virtual Academy]]  (Washington)
# [[Commonwealth Connections Academy]] (Pennsylvania)
<!-- wrong age # [[Community Academy Public Charter School Online]] (CAPCS Online) (Washington DC)-->
# [[Connecticut Virtual Learning Center]]
# [[Continental Academy]] (Florida)
# [[Cook County Sheriff’s Department Virtual High School]]
<!-- small, no longer exists # [[Crowley County Online Academy]] (Colorado)-->
<!-- wrong ages # [[Cyber Village Academy]] (Minnesota)-->
<!-- closed # [[Delaware Virtual School]] (Colorado)-->
# [[Delta Academy On Line School]] (Nevada)
# [[Delta Cyber School]] (Alaska)
<!-- no such school# [[Denali Career School]] (Alaska)-->
# [[DoDEA Virtual High School]]
# [[Denver Online High School]] (Colorado) (formerly DPS Online High School)
# [[Dunlap Leadership Academy]] (California)
# [[Duval Virtual Instruction Academy]] (Florida)
# [[eCADEMY]] (New Mexico)
<!-- not enough online # [[Edison Academy]] (Colorado)-->
# [[Education Program for Gifted Youth]] Online High School, Stanford University (California)
# [[ELCA Online Learning Academy]] (Georgia)
# [[EdVisions Online High School]] (Minnesota)
# [[EV Online Learning]] (Washington)
# [[Electronic Classroom of Tomorrow]] (Ohio)
# [[Electronic Course Program]] (Texas)
# [[Evanston Virtual High School]] (Wyoming)
# [[Excel High School]] (Minnesota)
# [[Fairbanks B.E.S.T. Program]] (Alaska)
# [[Fairborn Digital Academy]] (Ohio)
# [[Falcon Virtual Academy]] (Colorado)
# [[Findlay Digital Academy]] (Ohio)
# [[Florida Virtual School]]
# [[Francis School]] (New York)
# [[Franklin University PSEOP]] (Ohio)
# [[Freshwater Education District Virtual School Consortium]] (Minnesota)
# [[Georgia Cyber Academy]] 
<!-- too young # [[Georgia Virtual Academy]] (Georgia)-->
# [[Georgia Virtual School]]
# [[Giant Campus of Washington]] (Washington)
# [[Giant Campus Academy]]
# [[GLBTQ Online High School]] (Minnesota)
# [[GOAL Digital Academy]] (Ohio)
# [[GOAL Academy Online]] (Colorado)
# [[Graham Digital Academy]] (Ohio)
# [[Greater Ohio Virtual School]]
# [[Greenways Academy]]
# [[Gwinnett Online Campus]] (Georgia)
# [[Hamilton County Virtual School]] (Tennessee)
# [[Hawaii DOE E-School]]
# [[Hawaii Technology Academy]]
# [[Hawaii Virtual Learning Network]]
# [[Hawaii Virtual School]]
# [[Hoosier Academies]] (Indiana)
# [[Hope High School Online]] (Arizona)
# [[Hope Online Learning Academy]] (Colorado)
# [[Idaho Connects Online]]
# [[Idaho Digital Learning Academy]]
# [[Idaho Distance Education Academy]]
# [[Idaho Virtual Academy]]
# [[IDEAL-NM]] (New Mexico)
# [[Independent Study High School]] (Nebraska)
# [[Illinois Virtual High School]]
# [[Indiana Connections Academy]]
# [[Insight School of Colorado]]
# [[Insight School of Kansas]]
# [[Insight School of Minnesota]]
# [[Insight School of Washington]]
# [[Insight School of Wisconsin]]
# [[INSPIRE Connections Academy]] (Idaho)
<!-- too small # [[Institute for Online Learning]] (Illinois)-->
<!-- not US # [[International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme]]-->
# [[International Virtual Learning Academy]] (California)
# [[Internet Academy]] (IA) (Washington)
# [[Iowa Learning Online]]
# [[Iowa Online AP Academy]]
# [[iQ Academy Arizona]]
# [[iQ Academy Kansas]]
# [[iQ Academy Minnesota]]
<!-- too young # [[iQ Academy Texas]]-->
# [[iQ Academy Washington]]
# [[iQ Academy Wisconsin]]
# [[iSucceed Virtual High School]] (Idaho)
# [[Jackson Hole Connections Academy]] (Wyoming)
# [[Janesville Virtual Academy]] (Wisconsin)
# [[JEDI Virtual High School]] (Wisconsin)
# [[Jeffco's 21st Century Virtual Academy]] (Colorado)
# [[Jefferson County JCPSeSchool]]
# [[Kansas Connections Academy]]
<!--dead # [[Kaplan Academy of Arizona]]-->
# [[Kaplan Academy of California]]
<!-- new name # [[Kaplan Academy of Idaho]]-->
# [[Kaplan Academy of Oregon]]
# [[Kaplan Academy of Washington]]
# [[Kaplan University High School]]
# [[Karval Online Education]] (Colorado)
# [[Kenosha eSchool]] (Wisconsin)
# [[Kent Digital Academy]] (Ohio)
# [[Kentucky Virtual Schools]]
# [[Keystone Online School]]
# [[Kiel eSchool]] (Wisconsin)
<!--# [[Lakeville Career OnLine]] (LCOL) (Minnesota)-->
# [[Lakewood Digital Academy]] (Ohio)
# [[Lancaster Digital Academy]] (Ohio)
<!-- no info, K-8?? # [[Lawrence Virtual School]] (LVS) (Kansas)-->
# [[Learn at My Pace]] (LAMP) Online High School (Minnesota)
<!-- no such # [[London Academy]] (Ohio)-->
<!--?? # [[Lorain High School Digital]] (Ohio)-->
<!-- covered # [[Los Angeles School District]] (California)-->
# [[Learning² eSchool of Wichita]] (Kansas)
# [[Louisiana Virtual School]]
# [[Mahoning Unlimited Classroom]] (Ohio)
<!-- K-8# [[Maize Virtual Preparatory School]] (Kansas)-->
<!-- no # [[Marion City Digital Academy]] (Ohio)-->
<!-- for teachers, trad # [[Maryland Virtual High School of Science and Mathematics]]-->
# [[Maryland Virtual School]]
# [[Massachusetts Online Network for Education]] (MassONE)
<!-- k-8 # [[Massachusetts Virtual Academy at Greenfield]]-->
# [[Massillon Digital Academy]] (Ohio)
# [[Mercury Online Academy of Arizona]]
# [[Mercury Online Prep]]
# [[Mercury Academy of Southern California]]
# [[Meridian Parent Partnership Program]] (MP3) (Washington)
# [[Mesa Distance Learning Program]]
# [[Miami Dade I-Prep Academy]] (Florida)
# [[Miami-Dade Online Academy]] (Florida)
# [[Michigan Virtual School]]
<!-- cannot find # [[Minnesota Center of Online Learning]]-->
# [[Midwestern Regional Virtual Charter School]] (Pennsylvania)
# [[Minnesota Online High School]]
# [[Minnesota Transitions Schools Minnesota Connections Academy]]
# [[Minnesota Virtual Academy]]
# [[Minnesota Virtual High School]]
# [[Mississippi Virtual Public School]]
# [[Missouri Virtual Instruction Program]]
# [[Monroe Virtual High School]] (Wisconsin)
# [[Monroe Virtual Middle School]] (Wisconsin)
# [[Montana Digital Academy]]
# [[Monte Vista Online Academy]] (Colorado)
# [[Move Up Program]] (Washington)
# [[MPS Online]] (Minnesota)
<!-- K8 # [[Nashville Virtual School]] (Tennessee)-->
# [[National Connections Academy]]
<!-- a vendor, not a school # [[National Network of Digital Schools]] (Pennsylvania)-->
# [[National University Virtual High School]] (California)
# [[Nevada Connections Academy]]
# [[Nevada Virtual Academy]]
# [[New Jersey Virtual School]]
# [[Newark Digital Academy]] (Ohio)
<!-- not online # [[North Branch Distance Learning Program]] (Minnesota)-->
# [[NCSSM Online]] (North Carolina)
# [[North Carolina Virtual Public School]]
# [[North Dakota Center for Distance Education]]
# [[Northeast Wisconsin Online Network]] (Wisconsin)
# [[Northwest Allprep]] (Washington)
<!-- no such school # [[Northside Virtual High School]] (Texas)-->
<!-- closed # [[Oasis Alternative School]] (Washington) -->
# [[Odyssey High School]] (Nevada)
# [[Ohio Connections Academy]]
# [[Ohio Distance And Electronic Learning Academy]]
# [[Ohio Virtual Academy]]
<!-- too young # [[Okanogan Regional Learning Academy]] (Washington)-->
<!-- too young # [[Oklahoma Calvert Academy]] (Ohio)-->
<!-- too young # [[Oklahoma Connections Academy]] -->
# [[Oklahoma Virtual Academy]] 
# [[Oklahoma Virtual Charter Academy]]
# [[Oklahoma Virtual High School]]
# [[Oklahoma Virtual School]]
# [[Olympia Regional Learning Academy iConnect]] (Washington)
# [[Omaha Public Schools eLearning]]
# [[Open High School of Utah]]
# [[Oregon Connections Academy]]
# [[Oregon Virtual Academy]]
# [[Oregon Virtual Education]]
<!-- NOT a school or provider; discussed in ORVED, above # [[Oregon Virtual School District]] -->
# [[PA Distance Learning Charter School]] (Pennsylvania)
# [[PA Learners Online Regional Cyber Charter School]] (Pennsylvania)
# [[Pacific View Charter School]]
# [[Palmetto State E-cademy]] (South Carolina)
# [[Park City Independent]] (Utah)
# [[Pennsylvania Cyber Charter School]]
# [[Pennsylvania Leadership Charter School]]
# [[Pennsylvania Virtual Charter School]]
# [[Pinnacle Online High School]] (Arizona)
<!-- too little online # [[Porter Township School Corp]] (Indiana)-->
# [[Primavera Online High School]] (Arizona)
# [[Provo eSchool]] (Utah)
# [[Provost Academy South Carolina]]
# [[Provost Academy Colorado]]
# [[Quaker Digital Academy]] (Ohio)
# [[Red Comet]] (Washington)
# [[Richard McKenna Charter High School]] (Idaho)
# [[Riverside Virtual School]] (California)
<!-- K-5 only # [[Rocketship Education]] (California)-->
<!-- K-8 # [[Rural Virtual Academy]] (Wisconsin)-->
<!-- masters level only # [[Salem Virtual School]] (SVS) (West Virginia)-->
# [[Scholars Online]] (Washington)
<!-- middle school only # [[School of One]] (New York)-->
# [[Silver State High School]] (Nevada)
# [[Sioux Falls School District]] (South Dakota)
# [[Slavic Christian Academy]] (Washington)
<!-- too young # [[South Carolina Calvert Academy]]-->
# [[South Carolina Connections Academy]]
# [[South Carolina Virtual Charter School]]
# [[South Carolina Virtual School Program]]
# [[South Carolina Whitmore School]]
# [[South Dakota Virtual School]]
<!-- cannot locate after press releases # [[Southern California Virtual High School]]-->
# [[Southwest Licking Digital Academy]] (Ohio)
# [[Spokane Virtual Learning]] (Washington)
# [[Spring Lake Park Online]] (SLP Online) (Minnesota)
# [[St. Johns Virtual School]] (Florida)
<!-- seeing no online content # [[St. Marys City Schools]] (Ohio)-->
# [[SusQ-Cyber Charter School]] (Pennsylvania)
# [[Texas Connections Academy @ Houston]]
# [[Texas Virtual Academy]]
# [[Texas Virtual School]]
# [[Tempe Union Online Learning]] (TUOL) (Arizona)
# [[The American Academy]]
<!--CLOSED # [The Einstein Academy Charter School]] (TEACH) (Pennsylvania) -->
# [[Treca Digital Academy]]
# [[TRIO Wolf Creek Online High School]] (Minnesota)
<!--exists? # [[United Virtual Schools]] (UVS) (New York)-->
# [[University of California College Prep]] (California)
# [[University of Missouri High School]]
# [[University of Oklahoma High School]]
# [[Utah Electronic High School]] (EHS)
# [[Utah Tech High]]
# [[Utah Virtual Academy]]
# [[Vermont Virtual Learning Cooperative]]
# [[Vilas Online]] (Colorado)
<!--K-8# [[Virginia Virtual Academy]] (VAVA) -->
# [[Virtual Community School Of Ohio]]
# [[Virtual High School Global Consortium]] (VHS)
# [[Virtual Learning Academy Charter School]]  (New Hampshire)
# [[Virtual Virginia]]
# [[VOISE Academy High School]] (Illinois)
<!-- See greater ohio virtual school # [[Warren County Virtual Community School]] (Ohio)-->
<!-- represented by EV online and other # [[Washington Academy of Arts & Technology]] (WAAT) (Washington)-->
# [[Washington Online School Network]]
# [[Washington Virtual Academies]] (WAVA) (Washington)
# [[WOLF School]] (Nevada)
# [[West Central Learning Academy II]] (Ohio)
# [[West Virginia Virtual School]]
<!--closed?? # [[Western Pennsylvania Cyber Charter School]] (Pennsylvania)-->
# [[Westwood Cyber High]] (Michigan)
# [[WiloStar3D-Epic Academy]] (Oklahoma)
# [[Wisconsin Connections Academy]]
# [[Wisconsin eSchool Network]]
# [[Wisconsin Virtual Academy]]
# [[Wisconsin Virtual Learning]]
# [[Wisconsin Virtual School]]
# [[Wyoming e-academy of Virtual Education]] (WeAVE)
# [[Wyoming Switchboard Network]]
# [[Wyoming Virtual Academy]]


* The Department of Education’s [http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/os/technology/index.html Office of Educational Technology] (OET) supports the use of technology in education. (It released its draft "National Education Technology Plan" in March 2010 to "provide the context and vision for how information and communication technologies can help transform American education" - see details above.)


* The [http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/e-gov/ Office of E-Government & Information Technology], is part of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB)
See also the Wikipedia article at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_virtual_schools#United_States.


* The [http://it.usaspending.gov/ IT Dashboard], launched in June 2009, allows the American people to monitor IT investments across the Federal government.
=== Virtual initiatives in post-secondary education ===
<!-- include virtual campuses and virtual universities (distance education) as well as on-campus initiatives  -->


* Founded in 1969, the [http://www.nascio.org National Association of State Chief Information Officers] (NASCIO) represents state chief information officers and information technology executives and managers from the states, territories, and the District of Columbia. The primary state members are senior officials from state government who have executive-level and statewide responsibility for information technology leadership.
According to the Sloan Consortium's 2010 report on [http://sloanconsortium.org/publications/survey/class_differences Class Differences: Online Education in the United States], approximately 5.6 million students were enrolled in at least one online course in the autumn of 2009. Other findings include:
* Almost two-thirds of for-profit institutions say that online learning is a critical part of their long term strategy
* The 21% growth rate for online enrollments far exceeds the 2% growth in the overall higher education student population
* Nearly one-half of institutions report that the economic downturn has increased demand for face-to-face courses and programmes
* Three-quarters of institutions report that the economic downturn has increased demand for online courses and programmes


* The [http://www.cio.gov/  Chief Information Officers] (CIO) Council serves as the principal interagency forum for improving practices in the design, modernisation, use, sharing, and performance of Federal Government agency information resources
There are no university-focused relevant federal initiatives of note. However, in July 2009 president Barrack Obama pledged to devote $12 billion over 10 years to improve programmes, courses, and facilities at US Community Colleges, with "$500 million devoted to freely available online courses". This pledge has evolved over time and is covered in more detail above under "Education Reform".


This is not a comprehensive list - and in particular does not identify any state or regional programmes (of which there are many). See http://www.usa.gov/Government/State_Local/Technology.shtml for more related agencies/organisations.
Despite the lack of national motivation, the simple scope and diversity of virtual university activity in the US cannot be underestimated. Most US universities offer at least one hybrid or fully online programme. Many institutions offer a wide range of programmes, at both the undergraduate and postgraduate levels.  


=== Benchmarking e-learning ===
Many of the "notables" are operated by for-profit, private companies, although a variety of initiatives originating in "traditional" universities were examined under Re.ViCa as well. Some major institutions/initiatives include:
 
The term "benchmarking" – and perhaps the very concept - has not been as commonly applied in US higher education as in many other countries. Skeptics might argue that this is due to of that country’s general tendency towards solitude and unilateralism in these matters.  Where the term "benchmarking" does occur in reference to e-learning, we find it applied in diverse (and often corporate-training-related) evaluation methodologies and systems:
 
* Interactive Quality Assessment Tool (IQAT™), http://www.iqat.org/
 
* Flashlight Online, via the TLT Group, http://www.tltgroup.org/Flashlight/flashlightonline.htm (powered by the Skylight Matrix Survey System, funded by FIPSE)
 
* National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE), Indiana University Center for Postsecondary Research, http://nsse.iub.edu/index.cfm
 
For a more abstract interpretation of "benchmarking" in the US, see the Educational Research Reports Center at the United States Distance Learning Association (USDLA) for a [http://www.usdla.org/index.php?cid=180  variety of reports] which compare approaches to e-learning in K-12 and general education, undertaken by the National Center for Education Statistics, US Department of Education; the Sloan Consortium; and others.
 
==Virtual Campus Initiatives in Higher Education==
 
As noted above, most US universities offer at least one hybrid or fully online program. Many institutions offer a wide range of programmes, at both the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. There are no relevant federal initiatives of note.
 
Many of the "notables" are operated by for-profit, private companies, although a variety of initiatives originating in "traditional" universities are examined as well. Some major institutions/initiatives include:


* [[Capella University]]
* [[Capella University]]
Line 385: Line 713:
== Lessons learnt==
== Lessons learnt==


Some countries - like the US - offer regional initiatives which merit study alongside national ones. The decentralised approach to US education renders it suitable for study by European analysts.
=== General lessons ===
 
The US is an unusually structured nation of 50 federated states, to which it is not always easy to compare other countries - especially those located in Europe (as they are more likely to see broad-ranging, national initiatives in education). Some of the associated issues are explored below (''text prepared for Re.ViCa'').
 
Note also that the apparent success of e-learning/online higher education in the [[US]] must be approached with care - quality may vary widely from institution to institution (and programme to programme). See note above on the complexity of US accreditation and quality control mechanisms.


The apparent success of e-learning/online higher education in the [[US]] must be approached with care - quality may vary widely from institution to institution (and programme to programme). One must always remember that the US accreditation mechanisms are complex and not subject to federal standardisation (per se); and that there are certainly some US online universities which operate legally without any accreditation, respected or otherwise.
==== Is the relevance of the US or of its states? ====
''Text prepared for Re.ViCa and moved from an earlier section.''
 
Hovering around 308.6 million as of early 2010, the population of the USA seems enormously large compared with that of most European countries. (For comparison, the population of the [[UK]] is estimated at 62 million, the [[Netherlands]] at 16.6 million, and [[Finland]] at 5.3 million.) Nevertheless, the federal structure of the US and the deregulated nature of its educational systems indicate that it is reasonable to look to the state level when studying e-learning in the US.
 
This "relevance" depends primarily on comparing US states to discrete European ones - it is extremely difficult to compare and contrast the US and Europe as a whole (in e-learning or otherwise).
 
The population of the EU is now estimated at over 500 million, about 1.5 times that of the US, and its inhabitants speak over 170 languages (of which 23 are considered "official"). While the US itself has no "official" language, nearly all Americans speak English, and moreover share essentially similar cultural expectations. This (in conjunction with the US's underlying federal governance structure) often results in a velocity of propagation of ideas nationwide which is rarely replicated across the EU. 
 
==== Post-secondary: Do US ideas in e-learning transfer to Europe? ====
''Text prepared for Re.ViCa and moved from an earlier section.''
 
Many European analysts consider US universities - both large and small, public and private - more successful at developing and implementing substantial e-learning programmes than their European counterparts. Online learning in the US is indeed expanding at a remarkable and enviable pace: the average growth rate for online university enrolments has increased by roughly 13% per annum over the past seven years (compared with 2% for US "brick and mortar" enrolments). Other indicators of success include completion rates, programme sustainability over a number of years, and academic reputation.
 
Researchers have (understandably) questioned why the success of e-learning in US universities does not transfer more readily to a European context. Is it the economy, the geography, the demographics, or the population density; the nature of the respective educational funding models; or something else entirely? Indeed, these are but a few of the differences that may contribute to the challenge of e-learning transfer. Consider also the vast differences in quality models, academic focus, relevant public policy, language/culture, and technology uptake. In a global culture where online degrees are rapidly acquiring credibility, and students have begun to actively pursue online degrees via overseas institutions, these are critical questions to consider when pondering the future of education in Europe.
 
It is certain that North American ideas in e-learning form worthy comparators, and in countless cases do see transfer to Europe (and beyond). For example, many of the early course/learning management systems which formulated our earliest understanding of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_virtual_learning_environments_1990s "online learning" in the mid-1990s] were developed in either America or Canada, e.g. LotusNotes, FirstClass, Blackboard and WebCT. A distinctly American company with American attitudes and products, Blackboard [[learning management systems]] remains in common usage across Europe (despite recent trends towards [[OER]] in the market). Institutions worldwide have sought to mirror the success of the US in exporting learning via the internet.
 
There is also more general discussion of the "Americanisation of Education" seen in some European countries - which is too broad and controversial a topic to address here.
 
Whatever the ramifications, the past would suggest that European analysts should indeed examine US e-learning trends in order to better understand (and possibly predict) directions for growth in their own countries.
 
=== Notable practices ===
<!-- include exemplar practices (ones to follow) as well as practices to avoid  -->
 
The unusually decentralised nature of US education makes it difficult to locate national practices that might be applied more broadly. Note, however, that this decentralisation seems to have stimulated the development of virtual schools within the US in an unprecedented manner. Virtual Schools may be public or private; private organisations may partner with public school systems; and online courses may be partly or purely supplemental (as opposed to full time). There is no shortage of models evolving, and it would seem that the lack of uniformity has proven a rich and fertile ground for development.
 
Less optimistically, there are many opposed to the dominant role that private, for-profit organisations have come to play in the development of US virtual schools (and in charter schools in particular - see description above). Many of these "academies" have been developed along the lines of a "University of Phoenix" model, and indeed are often owned by large, profit-seeking parent companies. In other words, the unique US educational landscape brings both benefits and challenges. (In this context of post-secondary education, consider the wide range of accrediting agencies, and the longstanding disputes regarding educational quality among for-profit, commercial institutions). It is difficult to judge their applicability in other contexts.


== References ==
== References ==
 
<!-- cite the relevant OECD, UNESCO, EU, EUN, ICT4D, etc reports -->
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* Tyack, D. and Cuban, L. (1995) Tinkering Toward Utopia: a century of public school reform, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press.
* "United States". International Monetary Fund, http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2006&ey=2009&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=111&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=64&pr.y=8    Retrieved 2010-02-08
* "United States". International Monetary Fund, http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2006&ey=2009&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=111&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=64&pr.y=8    Retrieved 2010-02-08
* "United States". Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usa  Retrieved 2010-02-08
* "United States". Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usa  Retrieved 2011-07-15
* "United States". CIA World Factbook, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html
* "United States". CIA World Factbook, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html
* "U.S. state". Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._state  Retrieved 2010-02-15
* "U.S. state". Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._state  Retrieved 2011-07-15
* "US to unveil broadband plan Mar 17, sees barriers". Reuters.com, Feb. 23 2010, http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN2224640220100223 Retrieved 2010-02-28
* "US to unveil broadband plan Mar 17, sees barriers". Reuters.com, Feb. 23 2010, http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN2224640220100223 Retrieved 2010-02-28
* "USA education". Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usa#Education  Retrieved 2010-02-15
* "USA education". Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usa#Education  Retrieved 2011-07-28
* van der Wende, M. (2002) The Role of US Higher Education in the Global e-Learning Market, Center for Higher Education Policy Studies, University of Twente, http://cshe.berkeley.edu/publications/docs/ROP.WendePaper1.02.pdf
* van der Wende, M. (2002) The Role of US Higher Education in the Global e-Learning Market, Center for Higher Education Policy Studies, University of Twente, http://cshe.berkeley.edu/publications/docs/ROP.WendePaper1.02.pdf
* "White House makes grants to boost online learning". eSchoolNews, September 26 2011, http://www.ecampusnews.com/technologies/white-house-makes-grants-to-boost-online-learning/
=== Recent reports (last 8 years) ===


Bacsich, P. (2017), Credit Transfer for Open/Online Graduate Programs: Annex 2 United States, Report for [[Thompson Rivers University]], September 2017, [[Media:PLAR Masters benchmark Annex 2 United States.pdf]]


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Latest revision as of 21:07, 16 November 2023

(Re.ViCa version by Sara Frank Bristow and Paul Bacsich.)

Put in merged template and updated for VISCED by Sara Frank Bristow.

For entities in the United States see Category:United_States


Experts situated in the United States

  • Cathy Cavanaugh, Associate Professor of Educational Technology, School of Teaching and Learning, University of Florida at Gainesville
  • Sara Frank Bristow, Independent Researcher and Sero collaborator; contributor to Re.ViCa
  • Susan Patrick, International Association for K-12 Online Learning (iNACOL)
  • Russ Poulin, WICHE Cooperative for Educational Technologies; contributor to Re.ViCa


United States in a nutshell

(sourced in part from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States and https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html)

Source : http://www.cia.gov

The United States (United States of America; US, USA, or America) is a federal constitutional republic comprising 50 states and a federal district. The world's oldest surviving federation, the United States is a constitutional republic and representative democracy, in which citizens are subject to three levels of government: federal, state, and local.

The country is situated mostly in central North America between the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km2) and with about 311 million people (July 2011), the United States is the third or fourth largest country by total area (depending on definition), and third largest by land area and by population.

Wikimedia Commons Map of US states

The US comprises 50 discrete states; see the US States Wikipedia article for a full list. Washington D.C. (the District of Columbia), a special district which is not part of any US state, serves as the permanent national capital. The US also possesses five major overseas territories, all considered separately in this wiki. According to 2010 estimates, the largest contiguous state, California, has 37 million people; and the next, Texas, has 25 million. The seven states with 10 million people or more are: California, Texas, New York, Florida, Illinois, Pennsylvania and Ohio. Ten states have populations of less than 10 but more than 6 million. 33 states have populations under 6 million; of these, 13 have populations ranging from 1 to 3 million.

The list of states with their own Virtual Campus wiki entries resides at Category:States of the United States. Regional sub-categories have been created for states with a high incidence of notable e-learning programmes, e.g. California and Colorado. Others are added as activity is identified.

Education in the United States

Students are not compelled to study at nationally controlled or public schools in the United States, and from primary through post-secondary level, a broad range of private, for-profit options exist. In 2008, about 74 million people (both citizens and foreign nationals) were enrolled in American schools, colleges and universities.

Education is primarily a state and local responsibility in the US, with most decisions made (and policies established) on that basis. It is states and communities, as well as public and private organisations of various types, that establish schools and colleges, develop curricula, and determine requirements for enrolment and graduation - not the federal (central) government.

The structure of education finance in America reflects this predominant state and local role. Of an estimated $1.13 trillion in government funds being spent nationwide on education at all levels for the school year 2010-2011, a substantial majority comes from state, local, and private sources. This is especially true at the elementary (primary) and secondary levels, where 89% of the funds will come from non-federal sources.

The Federal government contribution to primary and secondary education is only about 11%.

Schools in the United States

Children are required in most US states to attend school from the age of five or six until 16, 17 or 18 - generally bringing them through grade 12, or twelfth grade (the end of High School). This sequence is colloquially referred to as "K-12" education.

In all, 86% of American schoolchildren enroll in the "Public" (publicly funded) school system. About 12% are enrolled in parochial or nonsectarian "Private" (non-publicly funded) schools, and 2% are homeschooled.

Public school curricula, funding, teaching, and other policies are set through locally elected school boards with jurisdiction over school districts, which may have many directives from state legislatures. School districts are usually separate from other local jurisdictions, with independent officials and budgets. Educational standards and standardised testing decisions are usually made by state governments, with curricula varying widely from district to district.

Individual states, counties, and school districts have considerable leeway in how they choose to divide their school levels, so it is difficult to accurately describe an "average" child's standard progression through education. However, all states have historically made a distinction between two main genres of K-12 education and three genres of K-12 school.

  • The genres of education are Primary and Secondary; and
  • The genres of school are Elementary School, Middle or Junior High School, and High School

Elementary and Secondary school programmes comprise nearly 14,000 school districts and some 56 million students, attending roughly 99,000 public schools and 34,000 private schools. It would impossible to list all US schools here; however, see the Wikipedia List of Schools in the United States for links itemised by state and school district.

Homeschooling is legal in all 50 US states, although the topic is at times controversial (as parents are not always considered fit to provide schooling which meets compulsory education standards). Homeschooling standards and requirements also vary widely among US states. Common reasons for adoption of homeschooling strategies include dissatisfaction with the quality of schooling available; dissatisfaction with moral, ethical or religious issues associated with a school; and/or inability of a student to participate due to time, financial or physical restraints (e.g. in the case of child athletes, celebrities and the disabled).

The decision to homeschool a child in the US may be interpreted as a statement of social, religious, political or other dissent.

Pre-Primary

The terms "Preschool," "Prekindergarten," "Pre-K" or "Nursery School" may all be used to refer to earlier age-group education. There is no compulsory national Pre-Primary education requirement in the US.

Elementary (Primary)

American children are required to attend six or seven years of Elementary School (generally comprising Kindergarten and grades 1-5 or 1-6). Kindergarten is a transitional year for students around the age of 5 or 6. Not all states make this year compulsory, though many do and offer this as a free educational year. First grade is the more official "first year" of primary school.

Middle or Junior High School

Middle School is a period of schooling between Elementary and High School, viewed by many as a conceptual bridge between the two. It often shares resources with a larger Secondary School rather than occupy its own facilities. Middle School typically spans grades 6-8, while Junior High School (Junior High) spans grades 7 and 8 only. Middle School/Junior High School students are generally between 11 and 14 years old.

High School

The majority of American students complete four years of High School (grades 9-12), graduating with a diploma around the age of 18. A small percentage of students opt to withdraw prior to graduation, permitted at either 16 or 17 depending on state of residence. These students may take a series of standardised tests (General Educational Development, or GED) and receive High School equivalency credentials if they perform well.

In 2008, 87% of Americans over the age of 25 had graduated from High School. High School graduates may either enter the workforce or continue education, e.g. at a higher education institution.

Further and Higher Education

The American further and higher education systems, like the primary and secondary education systems, are largely decentralised - that is, unregulated by any national body. With a limited number of exceptions, the federal government does not directly regulate colleges and universities (although it may award them federal grants). It can therefore be difficult to make generalisations about the institutions in these sectors (without focusing on one individual US state at a time), though we have tried our best below.

The term "Polytechnic" is not used as such in the US, though "Community Colleges" may be seen to occupy a similar educational niche - and are not unlike what some in other countries might call "University Colleges."

Universities (and "Colleges") in the United States

The US higher education system is known to host some of the finest universities in the world. According to the Shanghai Jiao Tong University's Academic Ranking of World Universities, more than 30 of the highest-ranked 45 institutions are in the United States (as measured primarily by awards and research output).

In discussing post-secondary education in the US it is important to bear in mind that the definition of the term "college" does not align neatly with that used in most other countries discussed in this wiki.

  • Universities are, generally speaking, four-year institutions of higher education and research, awarding both undergraduate and postgraduate ("graduate") degrees.
  • Colleges are four-year, undergraduate institutions with an emphasis on taught courses, which may award the same undergraduate degrees as universities. Colleges may be part of a larger research university or may exist independently.

Americans do not always distinguish verbally between "college" and "university" – those attending a university would refer to this process as "going to college" while in pursuit of their undergraduate degree.

It is difficult to identify the precise number of colleges and universities in the United States - in part because of varying definitions of the terms, and in part because of the diversity of potentially applicable institutions. Moreover, a US university need not be "accredited" in order to operate (see separate note on this topic). With these caveats in mind, a recent estimate by the University of Texas at Austin counts 2,043 colleges and universities; the US Department of Education Database of Accredited Postsecondary Institutions and Programs counts over 8,000 (community and vocational colleges are omitted in the first survey but included in the second); and the Chronicle of Higher Education 2009 Almanac of Higher Education counts 4,811.

Students provide transcripts of their High School grades and their results on a series of privately organised standardised tests when applying to American universities and colleges. Annual tuition fees are charged for higher education in almost all cases, and are often exorbitant compared to those found in other countries. (For the 2007–08 academic year, annual prices for undergraduate tuition, room, and board were estimated to be $11,578 at public institutions and $29,915 at private institutions.) Many students rely on student loans and scholarships from their university, the federal government, or a private lender.

Students may choose to attend public or private institutions to complete their undergraduate degrees. The majority of public universities are operated by individual states and territories, usually as part of a "state university system". Each state supports at least one state university and several support many more. By a wide margin, these "state schools" tend to be the most affordable to residents from within that state.

Those individuals completing undergraduate education at either a university or college may enter the workforce in a professional capacity or continue on to postgraduate ("graduate") study. In 2008, 29% of American adults 25 and older had a bachelor's degree.


(Community) Colleges in the United States

US "Community Colleges" are two-year institutions of higher education (once commonly called "Junior Colleges"). Often state-based and public, most Community Colleges operate under a policy of open admission and may be similar to the Polytechnics or University Colleges found in other countries.

Many Community Colleges are operated either by special districts that draw property tax revenue from the local community, as a division of a state university, or as sister institutions within a state-wide higher education system. In recent years, many Community Colleges have added online courses to their catalogues, and in some states have become hotbeds of e-learning activity.

Community Colleges typically offer two-year "associates degrees" and/or trade certifications, as well as services to the local community (e.g. a library or job placement assistance). Some offer courses towards a four-year bachelor's degree and may guarantee admission to a partner university. While most enrollees proceed directly from High School to Community College (and are therefore ages 18-21), Community College is also an attractive venue for older American adults returning to education after a hiatus; professionals seeking further certification in their field (or another); or hobbyists looking for an inexpensive way to further their personal interests.

US Community Colleges should not be confused with regular "Colleges", as the latter term is used uniquely in the US to refer to four-year teaching institutions which offer bachelor's degrees (see above). There are, however, other two-year institutions which would be referred to as "Community Colleges" even though they are not described as such by name; these have names like "institute of technology", "technical institute" or "technical college" and typically focus on training in technical and vocational skills.

Education Reform

A selection of "hot button" issues targeted in the budget for Fiscal Year 2012 reflect the general tenor of US educational reforms debated in the last five to ten years. These include:

  • College access and completion
  • Investing in early learning
  • Accelerating the use of educational technology
  • Supporting English language learners
  • Supporting individuals with disabilities
  • Strengthening the commitment to Native American, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian Education
  • Improving productivity and efficiency
  • Supporting rural education
  • Improving Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Education

Sector specifics are discussed below.

Schools

Approaches to improving public schooling have been the primary stakeholder concern ever since universal public education began to gain traction in US schools, in the middle of the nineteenth century. The Department of Education's official mission is to "promote student achievement and preparation for global competitiveness by fostering educational excellence and ensuring equal access", and reforms over the last 60 years have included issues of civil rights, "progressive" education versus "cultural literacy", and the 1990s adoption of Outcome-Based Education (OBE) - at which time a set of standards-based National Education Goals were set by the US Congress. The standards-based reform movement culminated in the controversial No Child Left Behind Act of 2001.

As of August 2011, issues frequently highlighted for potential reform include Repairing the Bush-era "No Child Left Behind" Act; Reauthorisation of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA); Addressing teacher cheating scandals in standardised testing; Teacher union reform; Expanding school day or school year; Validity of charter schools (in which public schools operate more like private ones); Validity of school choice, or "school vouchers" (in which parents may select which public school their child attends, or use a voucher to send them to a private one); Improving teacher quality/salary; Improving teacher training; Awarding performance bonuses ("merit pay") to teachers; English-only vs. bilingual education (allowing students to study in their native tongue - typically Spanish); Mainstreaming special education students (allowing special needs individuals to remain in "regular" schools); Content of curriculum standards and textbooks (which intersects with controversial issues like the teaching of creationism in the classroom); and others.

For more information see the collected pieces on on "P-12" (pre-Kindergarten through twelfth grade) Reform on the ED web site at http://www.ed.gov/p-12-reform; or the useful Wikipedia discussion at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_reform.

Post-secondary

Given the decentralised nature of the US HE system, federal reform might never reflect the kind of sweeping mandates periodically effected in other countries or unions. Nevertheless, certain proposed and actual reforms - largely addressing issues of affordability and access - pressed through or discussed from 2008-2011 are of great interest. Not all are exclusively higher-education specific. Some are detailed here:

  • Announcement regarding online courses for Community Colleges (September 2011). The long-awaited first installation of a $2 billion grant programme targeting Community College students through both industry partnerships and an expansion of free online courses. An initial $500 million in "workforce training programme" grants were scheduled for distribution after a rigorous application process that lasted almost a year. This followed on an announcement by President Obama in July 2009 to devote $12 billion over 10 years to improve programmes, courses, and facilities at US Community Colleges, with $500 million devoted to freely available online courses. Portions of this pledge were realised in the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010.
  • The National Broadband Plan (March 2010). Relevant in its potential to transform education in the US, as noted in the report itself. Despite early advances in the arena, for nearly 10 years the United States has lagged behind many other developed countries in the adoption of broadband technology. America's first National Broadband Plan recommends sweeping improvements to US broadband governance, infrastructure, affordability, and deployment, dedicating $15.5 billion to broadband deployment over the next decade.
  • The Student Aid and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2009. Goals included "producing the most college graduates by 2020 by making college accessible and transforming the way our student loan programs operate." The bill never became law; link now defunct.


Read more about current issues in the realm of US Higher Education reform at the Teachnology, Inc. web site: http://www.teach-nology.com/highered/reform/

The Bologna Process

This section was included as relevant to Re.ViCa and has not been updated since first posting.

The average American academic remains unaware of the Bologna Process and its significance. Yet a recent report by the US-based Lumina Foundation chides:

Former Secretary of Education, Margaret Spellings’ Commission on the Future of Higher Education paid no attention whatsoever to Bologna, and neither did the U.S. higher education community… Such purblind stances are unforgivable in a world without borders.

This report's author, Cliff Adelman (Institute for Higher Education Policy), is among numerous vocal proponents of US participation in a process similar to that set forth by Bologna. Lumina promotes "Tuning", explored in papers such as The Bologna Club: What U.S. Higher Education Can Learn from a Decade of European Reconstruction - which set forth the goal that attainment of high-quality undergraduate degrees and credentials in the United States should increase to 60% by 2025.

Adelman's efforts and those of others like him are not widely known. Bologna's spirit of harmonisation, unity and "work towards a common cause" is not often felt across US state borders, and there are few models of cross-border cooperation that scratch the surface of Bologna Process-like goals.

As a separate issue, some European researchers have explored evidence of US hostility towards the Bologna Process itself, in terms of its perceived success in attracting overseas students who might otherwise pursue studies in the US. As an increasing number of "geographically mobile" students choose European universities over American ones, some believe that Bologna is a seen as a threat – yet one that US officials have been unwilling to acknowledge or name. For one example of this research track, see Charlier and Croche's 2008 piece on The Outcome of Competition Between Europe and the United States.

Administration and finance

(adapted from the US Department of Education web site, http://www2.ed.gov)

2011 US Department of Education

Established in 1980, the US Department of Education (ED, or externally USDE) is the government agency that establishes policy for and administers most federal assistance to all sectors of US education. ED has 4,200 employees and a $63.7 billion budget; elementary and secondary programmes serve more than 14,000 school districts and 56 million students, who attend some 97,000 schools and 28,000 private schools. Department programmes also provide financial assistance to about 11 million post-secondary students. Many students attend private schools, colleges and universities, paid for with private funds.

It is always important to bear in mind the predominant state and local role in establishing American schools and colleges, developing curricula, and determining enrolment and graduation requirements. These tasks are not, for the most part, under the purview of ED - in other words, there are few national requirements in these areas. Of an estimated $1.13 trillion being spent nationwide on education at all levels for school year 2010-2011, a substantial majority (89%) come from state, local, and private sources.

The US Department of Education (i.e. US federal government) does:

  • Establish policies relating to federal financial aid for education, and administer/monitor those funds at all levels.
  • Collect data, oversee schools research, and disseminate results to the US Congress, educators and the general public.
  • Identify major issues, focus national attention on them, and make recommendations for education reform (advising the president and implementing education policies).
  • Enforce federal statutes prohibiting discrimination in programmes receiving federal funds, and ensure equal access to education.

The US Department of Education (i.e. US federal government) does not:

  • Establish schools and colleges
  • Develop curricula
  • Set requirements for enrollment and graduation
  • Determine state education standards
  • Develop or implement testing to measure whether states are meeting their own education standards

Notably for VISCED and Re.ViCa purposes, the Department of Education's Office of Educational Technology (OET) develops national educational technology policy, ensuring that programmes are coordinated and consistent across the federal government. OET released the US's first National Educational Technology Plan (NETP) in March 2010 as described above.

Schools

The Department of Education's Office of Elementary and Secondary Education (OESE) directs, coordinates, and recommends policies for state and local educational agencies, helps ensure equal access to services (particularly for underprivileged and underrepresented children), and provides financial assistance to a select number of local educational agencies.

OESE offers nearly 200 programmes, addressing a range of issues such as: Hurricane Help for Schools, Academic Improvement and Teacher Quality Programs, School Support and Technology Programs, Student Achievement and School Accountability Programs, and many more. Programmes are administered through numerous offices, e.g. the Office of Indian [Native American] Education and the Office of Migrant Education. (Note that this is only a fragment of a much longer list, and that programmes are not guaranteed funding on an annual basis.)

Post-secondary

Federal regulation is critical in the area of student financial aid (which provides loans to students for post-secondary tuition).

The Office of the Under Secretary (OUS) oversees policies, programmes, and activities related to post-secondary education, vocational and adult education, and federal student aid.

The Office of Postsecondary Education (OPE) formulates federal post-secondary education policy and administers over 40 programmes to increase access to quality post-secondary education. One of the OPE's primary programmes of relevance is the Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education (FIPSE). FIPSE's main activity each year is conducting the Comprehensive Program, a grant programme intended to support innovative, replicable post-secondary education improvement projects. FIPSE also administers international consortia programmes, co-funded by foreign government partners, such as the European Union-United States Atlantis Program which provides funding for joint or dual undergraduate degrees in a wide range of academic and professional disciplines.

The Office of Vocational and Adult Education (OVAE) administers and coordinates programmes related to adult education and literacy, career and technical education, and Community Colleges.

The Office of Federal Student Aid (FSA) provides critical financial assistance to students enrolled in post-secondary educational institutions. Students apply to this agency for aid, and repay loans to it directly; institutions demonstrating inferior quality may become ineligible to educate students receiving federal student loans.

Quality assurance

As described by the Department of Education's US Network for Education Information (USNEI), quality assurance takes several forms in the US system. The approval of institutions and programmes is generally undertaken by state agencies and accrediting agencies, with the latter also responsible for establishing and maintaining academic and administrative standards. Professional and academic disciplinary associations also play a role in influencing and assessing quality. Educational potential and outcomes are measured by a wide range of surveys, studies, tests, and other assessments at the national, regional, state and institutional levels.

Various documents outlining assessment, evaluation, and standards activities in US education at all levels can be reviewed at http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/edlite-structure-us.html. The site also offers overviews of associates, bachelor's, and postgraduate degrees.

See also these general USNEI reports for further information:

Schools

The US Department of Education does not have the authority to accredit private or public elementary or secondary schools; nor does it recognise schools-level accrediting bodies.

The US does not use national examinations to determine graduation from school or access to further studies, and there is no national curriculum on which to base such examinations. School curricula are set by local school districts, private schools, and homeschooling parents with reference to state standards and post-secondary requirements.

However, there is considerable commonality across the US education system despite the absence of legally enforced national curricula or examinations. Common evaluation and assessment standards and tools are the result of the pressures of the competitive academic marketplace, the expectations and requirements of employers and state agencies, and the standards required by accrediting agencies and professional and research associations.

For further information, USENEI provides these relevant schools report:

Post-secondary

As in other US educational sectors, Quality Assurance in higher education is not typically overseen at the national level. Post-secondary or tertiary curricula are determined by individual institutions with reference to accreditation requirements, professional requirements, and the expectations of postgraduate programmes and employers.

It is difficult to summarise in brief the uniqueness and complexity of the academic accreditation process in the US.

  • There is no single governmental accrediting body for US post-secondary educational institutions. Rather, ED relies on 74 private and state-based accrediting agencies to provide oversight of member institutions.
  • These agencies are divided into 16 "regional" accrediting agencies (regarded as the most selective), plus a number of "national," "hybrid" and "programmatic" agencies which may certify lesser-known and/or specialised entities.
  • Agencies awarded recognised by the Department of Education are not the only ones permitted to provide university accreditation; they have simply met a certain set of ED criteria. Recognition is not a requirement for an accrediting body to operate legally - although without it, institutions it certifies cannot participate in federal student aid programmes.
  • Non-accredited institutions are often perceived as lacking in quality and rigor, and may be termed "diploma mills".

Within ED, the Accreditation and State Liaison (ASL) has responsibility for the accrediting agency recognition process and for coordinating activities between states and ED that impact institutional participation in the federal financial assistance programmes. A National Advisory Committee on Institutional Quality and Integrity provides recommendations to the Secretary of Education regarding the recognition of post-secondary accrediting agencies.

For those seeking further information, USNEI provides these post-secondary reports:

Information society

Details about certain legislation, agencies and initiatives have been covered in previous sections.

After an initial period of sustained leadership in the areas of computer science, internet development and broadband uptake, the US is now widely considered to be stagnating in technology uptake and usage. According to the World Economic Forum (WEF)'s 2011 report, the US finished fifth in a survey of the 138 countries that make up 98.8 percent of the world's GDP (ranking 24th in percentage of households with a personal computer). The WEF measured aspects of technology usage including business and regulatory climates for IT development and interest in and use of technology by the government, individuals and businesses.

The US also faces a significant gap in residential broadband use that breaks down along race, income, education levels and other socio-economic factors.

Recent Pew findings report that 77% of American adults use the internet (Dec 2010); 83% of Americans own mobile phones, while just 57% own a personal computer (May 2011).

A variety of offices, agencies and non-profits monitor and direct US activity and strategy in the information society.

  • The Federal Communications Commission, an independent US government agency, regulates interstate and international communications by radio, television, wire, satellite and cable. (As noted above, it has unveiled the first US National Broadband Plan in March 2010, reinforcing the notion that all Americans are entitled to "affordable access to robust and reliable broadband products and services".)
  • The Department of Education’s Office of Educational Technology (OET) supports the use of technology in education. (The March 2010 "National Education Technology Plan" has been discussed above.)
  • The Office of E-Government & Information Technology is part of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB).
  • Founded in 1969, the National Association of State Chief Information Officers (NASCIO) represents state chief information officers and information technology executives and managers from the states, territories, and the District of Columbia. The primary state members are senior officials from state government who have executive-level and statewide responsibility for information technology leadership.
  • The Chief Information Officers (CIO) Council serves as the principal interagency forum for improving practices in the design, modernisation, use, sharing, and performance of Federal Government agency information resources.
  • The IT Dashboard, launched in June 2009, allows the American people to monitor IT investments across the federal government.

This is not a comprehensive list - and in particular does not identify any state or regional programmes. See http://www.usa.gov/Government/State_Local/Technology.shtml for more related agencies/organisations.

ICT in education initiatives

Virtual initiatives in schools

Online education in the US has gained considerable traction over the last 15 years - seemingly more so than in any other country. A major report from the International Association for K-12 Online Learning (iNACOL), A National Primer on K-12 Online Learning (Second Edition), estimates that over 1.5 million American K-12 students were engaged in online and blended learning for the 2009-2010 school year (out of approximately 55.2 million students enrolled ).This represents roughly 3% of the US K-12 population.

This relatively small figure belies the scope and nature of the programmes now available. Options vary from state to state, school district to school district, and even from school to school. As the Primer notes, whether a student has the option to participate in "supplemental" (i.e. single) courses or full-time online programmes remains a matter of state policy and local laws, "with a few states providing opportunities for most students, a few states providing almost no opportunities, and most states falling somewhere in the middle". Moreover, iNACOL and others acknowledge their ongoing struggle to survey data in this relatively new and rapidly changing arena; there is no single authority to whom any of the schools listed in this survey must report, and relevant data is not always made available to the public.

As of 2010, supplemental or full-time online learning opportunities were available to students in 48 of the 50 US states. 38 states had state virtual schools or state-led online initiatives (with a 39th set to open in 2011); 27 states plus Washington, DC had full-time online schools serving students statewide; and 20 states were providing both supplemental and full-time online learning options statewide (but not as part of a state virtual school). This can be compared to 2001, during which approximately 10 states had state virtual schools and even fewer offered other online education options. The three main types of US virtual school are summarised in brief below, as outlined in Keeping Pace With Online Learning: An Annual Review of Policy and Practice, Evergreen Education Group (2010). Note that not all schools fit neatly into one of the slots below, but without this kind of rough categorisation it would be exceedingly difficult to approach the vast array of US virtual schools.

An excellent pictorial summary of the current position in each US state is provided annually by the iNACOL 'Keeping Pace With K-12 Online Learning' Reports mentioned above.


Click here for the VISCED typology of US virtual schools.

Click here for the full VISCED list of Virtual schools in the US.


US state virtual schools - overview

  • Operate in 38 states
  • Are state-led online learning initiatives, with course enrollment ranging from several thousand to 16,000 for 2009-10
  • Boast 450,000 "course enrollments" nationwide, i.e. in which one student takes one course
  • Often provide local school districts with supplemental online courses, as well as online learning expertise and thought leadership for their own schools
  • Have students who study online part-time only (taking "supplemental" online courses while physically enrolled elsewhere)
  • Saw enrollment increase by nearly 40% from 2008-09 to 2009-10, though most gains came from the states of North Carolina and Florida only
  • Have virtual school enrollments exceeding 10,000 for 2009-10 in eight different states (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Louisiana, Michigan, North Carolina and South Carolina)
  • Are usually funded by legislative appropriation

Click here for the VISCED list of US statewide virtual schools - this includes both "state virtual schools" as described above, and any virtual school for which state residents are eligible.

US multi-school-district full-time online schools - overview

  • Operate in 27 states (each has at least one)
  • Have few or no part-time students; most have enrollment of a few hundred to several thousand
  • Usually attract students from across an entire state, so are found in those states that permit students to enroll across district lines
  • Are typically charter schools (i.e. special publicly funded schools operating under their own charters/standards, attended by student choice)
  • Are usually affiliated with a private national organisation e.g. Connections Academy, K12 Inc., Advanced Academics, or Insight Schools
  • Are often funded via state public education funds that follow the student

Click here for the VISCED list of US multi-school-district virtual schools.

Click here for the VISCED list of US charter schools.

US single school district programmes - overview

  • Are represented by only 11 well-established programmes nationwide
  • Serve only students who reside within a single, local district of residence
  • Serve mostly supplemental students (though some serve full-time students)
  • Are often focused on credit recovery or at-risk students
  • Make up the fastest growing segment of K-12 online learning

There are additionally a number of virtual schools run by consortia or postsecondary institutions, i.e. some which are not state, multi-district or single district schools.

Click here for the VISCED list of US single-school-district virtual schools.

Possible US Exemplars

Towards a Comprehensive List of US Virtual Schools (in progress)

All schools identified as "notable" in the early phases of VISCED are included below. The list is representative but not comprehensive, given the nature of the US. Virtual schools for the under-14s are deemed out of scope.

  1. 21st Century Cyber Charter School (Pennsylvania)
  2. Academy Online High School (Colorado)
  3. ACE Digital Academy (Ohio)
  4. ACHIEVEk12 (Colorado)
  5. Achievement House Cyber Charter School (Pennsylvania)
  6. Advanced Academics Online School (Oklahoma)
  7. AGVI Academy for Gifted Youth (California)
  8. Agave Distance Learning (Arizona)
  9. Agora Cyber Charter School (Pennsylvania)
  10. Akron Digital Academy (Ohio)
  11. Alabama ACCESS Distance Learning (State Virtual School)
  12. Alaska Virtual School
  13. Alaska's Learning Network
  14. Andover eCademy (Kansas)
  15. Anoka Hennepin Compass On-Line (Minnesota)
  16. Another Choice Virtual Charter School (Idaho)
  17. Apex Learning High School
  18. Appleton eSchool (Wisconsin)
  19. APS Online (Colorado)
  20. Arizona Connections Academy
  21. Arizona Online Instruction
  22. Arizona Virtual Academy
  23. Arizona Virtual School
  24. Arkansas Virtual High School
  25. ASPIRA Bilingual Cyber Cyber School (Pennsylvania)
  26. AZ2020 Online Academy (Arizona)
  27. Basehor-Linwood Virtual School (Kansas)
  28. Beacon Academy of Nevada
  29. Bethel Online Academy (Washington)
  30. Blue Sky Online Charter School (Minnesota)
  31. Blueprint High School (Arizona)
  32. Boulder Universal (Colorado)
  33. Branson School Online (Colorado)
  34. Brigham Young University Independent Study (Utah)
  35. Buckeye On-Line School for Success (Ohio)
  36. California Pacific Charter Schools (California)
  37. California Virtual Academies
  38. Canon Online Academy (Colorado)
  39. Capistrano Connections Academy (CapoCA) (California)
  40. Cardington-Lincoln Local Digital Academy (Ohio)
  41. Chesterfield County Public Schools Online (Virginia)
  42. Central California Connections Academy (California)
  43. Central Pennsylvania Digital Learning Foundation (Pennsylvania)
  44. Chester Area Cyber School (South Dakota)
  45. Chicago Virtual Charter School (Illinois)
  46. Christa McAuliffe Academy (Oregon)
  47. Cincinnati Virtual High School (Ohio)
  48. City of Angels Virtual Academy
  49. CCSD Virtual High School (Nevada)
  50. CK Online Academy (Washington)
  51. Cobb Virtual Academy (Georgia)
  52. Colorado Connections Academy
  53. Colorado Distance and Electronic Learning Academy (CDELA)
  54. Colorado Online Learning
  55. Colorado Cyber
  56. Colorado Virtual Academy
  57. Columbia Virtual Academy (Washington)
  58. Commonwealth Connections Academy (Pennsylvania)
  59. Connecticut Virtual Learning Center
  60. Continental Academy (Florida)
  61. Cook County Sheriff’s Department Virtual High School
  62. Delta Academy On Line School (Nevada)
  63. Delta Cyber School (Alaska)
  64. DoDEA Virtual High School
  65. Denver Online High School (Colorado) (formerly DPS Online High School)
  66. Dunlap Leadership Academy (California)
  67. Duval Virtual Instruction Academy (Florida)
  68. eCADEMY (New Mexico)
  69. Education Program for Gifted Youth Online High School, Stanford University (California)
  70. ELCA Online Learning Academy (Georgia)
  71. EdVisions Online High School (Minnesota)
  72. EV Online Learning (Washington)
  73. Electronic Classroom of Tomorrow (Ohio)
  74. Electronic Course Program (Texas)
  75. Evanston Virtual High School (Wyoming)
  76. Excel High School (Minnesota)
  77. Fairbanks B.E.S.T. Program (Alaska)
  78. Fairborn Digital Academy (Ohio)
  79. Falcon Virtual Academy (Colorado)
  80. Findlay Digital Academy (Ohio)
  81. Florida Virtual School
  82. Francis School (New York)
  83. Franklin University PSEOP (Ohio)
  84. Freshwater Education District Virtual School Consortium (Minnesota)
  85. Georgia Cyber Academy
  86. Georgia Virtual School
  87. Giant Campus of Washington (Washington)
  88. Giant Campus Academy
  89. GLBTQ Online High School (Minnesota)
  90. GOAL Digital Academy (Ohio)
  91. GOAL Academy Online (Colorado)
  92. Graham Digital Academy (Ohio)
  93. Greater Ohio Virtual School
  94. Greenways Academy
  95. Gwinnett Online Campus (Georgia)
  96. Hamilton County Virtual School (Tennessee)
  97. Hawaii DOE E-School
  98. Hawaii Technology Academy
  99. Hawaii Virtual Learning Network
  100. Hawaii Virtual School
  101. Hoosier Academies (Indiana)
  102. Hope High School Online (Arizona)
  103. Hope Online Learning Academy (Colorado)
  104. Idaho Connects Online
  105. Idaho Digital Learning Academy
  106. Idaho Distance Education Academy
  107. Idaho Virtual Academy
  108. IDEAL-NM (New Mexico)
  109. Independent Study High School (Nebraska)
  110. Illinois Virtual High School
  111. Indiana Connections Academy
  112. Insight School of Colorado
  113. Insight School of Kansas
  114. Insight School of Minnesota
  115. Insight School of Washington
  116. Insight School of Wisconsin
  117. INSPIRE Connections Academy (Idaho)
  118. International Virtual Learning Academy (California)
  119. Internet Academy (IA) (Washington)
  120. Iowa Learning Online
  121. Iowa Online AP Academy
  122. iQ Academy Arizona
  123. iQ Academy Kansas
  124. iQ Academy Minnesota
  125. iQ Academy Washington
  126. iQ Academy Wisconsin
  127. iSucceed Virtual High School (Idaho)
  128. Jackson Hole Connections Academy (Wyoming)
  129. Janesville Virtual Academy (Wisconsin)
  130. JEDI Virtual High School (Wisconsin)
  131. Jeffco's 21st Century Virtual Academy (Colorado)
  132. Jefferson County JCPSeSchool
  133. Kansas Connections Academy
  134. Kaplan Academy of California
  135. Kaplan Academy of Oregon
  136. Kaplan Academy of Washington
  137. Kaplan University High School
  138. Karval Online Education (Colorado)
  139. Kenosha eSchool (Wisconsin)
  140. Kent Digital Academy (Ohio)
  141. Kentucky Virtual Schools
  142. Keystone Online School
  143. Kiel eSchool (Wisconsin)
  144. Lakewood Digital Academy (Ohio)
  145. Lancaster Digital Academy (Ohio)
  146. Learn at My Pace (LAMP) Online High School (Minnesota)
  147. Learning² eSchool of Wichita (Kansas)
  148. Louisiana Virtual School
  149. Mahoning Unlimited Classroom (Ohio)
  150. Maryland Virtual School
  151. Massachusetts Online Network for Education (MassONE)
  152. Massillon Digital Academy (Ohio)
  153. Mercury Online Academy of Arizona
  154. Mercury Online Prep
  155. Mercury Academy of Southern California
  156. Meridian Parent Partnership Program (MP3) (Washington)
  157. Mesa Distance Learning Program
  158. Miami Dade I-Prep Academy (Florida)
  159. Miami-Dade Online Academy (Florida)
  160. Michigan Virtual School
  161. Midwestern Regional Virtual Charter School (Pennsylvania)
  162. Minnesota Online High School
  163. Minnesota Transitions Schools Minnesota Connections Academy
  164. Minnesota Virtual Academy
  165. Minnesota Virtual High School
  166. Mississippi Virtual Public School
  167. Missouri Virtual Instruction Program
  168. Monroe Virtual High School (Wisconsin)
  169. Monroe Virtual Middle School (Wisconsin)
  170. Montana Digital Academy
  171. Monte Vista Online Academy (Colorado)
  172. Move Up Program (Washington)
  173. MPS Online (Minnesota)
  174. National Connections Academy
  175. National University Virtual High School (California)
  176. Nevada Connections Academy
  177. Nevada Virtual Academy
  178. New Jersey Virtual School
  179. Newark Digital Academy (Ohio)
  180. NCSSM Online (North Carolina)
  181. North Carolina Virtual Public School
  182. North Dakota Center for Distance Education
  183. Northeast Wisconsin Online Network (Wisconsin)
  184. Northwest Allprep (Washington)
  185. Odyssey High School (Nevada)
  186. Ohio Connections Academy
  187. Ohio Distance And Electronic Learning Academy
  188. Ohio Virtual Academy
  189. Oklahoma Virtual Academy
  190. Oklahoma Virtual Charter Academy
  191. Oklahoma Virtual High School
  192. Oklahoma Virtual School
  193. Olympia Regional Learning Academy iConnect (Washington)
  194. Omaha Public Schools eLearning
  195. Open High School of Utah
  196. Oregon Connections Academy
  197. Oregon Virtual Academy
  198. Oregon Virtual Education
  199. PA Distance Learning Charter School (Pennsylvania)
  200. PA Learners Online Regional Cyber Charter School (Pennsylvania)
  201. Pacific View Charter School
  202. Palmetto State E-cademy (South Carolina)
  203. Park City Independent (Utah)
  204. Pennsylvania Cyber Charter School
  205. Pennsylvania Leadership Charter School
  206. Pennsylvania Virtual Charter School
  207. Pinnacle Online High School (Arizona)
  208. Primavera Online High School (Arizona)
  209. Provo eSchool (Utah)
  210. Provost Academy South Carolina
  211. Provost Academy Colorado
  212. Quaker Digital Academy (Ohio)
  213. Red Comet (Washington)
  214. Richard McKenna Charter High School (Idaho)
  215. Riverside Virtual School (California)
  216. Scholars Online (Washington)
  217. Silver State High School (Nevada)
  218. Sioux Falls School District (South Dakota)
  219. Slavic Christian Academy (Washington)
  220. South Carolina Connections Academy
  221. South Carolina Virtual Charter School
  222. South Carolina Virtual School Program
  223. South Carolina Whitmore School
  224. South Dakota Virtual School
  225. Southwest Licking Digital Academy (Ohio)
  226. Spokane Virtual Learning (Washington)
  227. Spring Lake Park Online (SLP Online) (Minnesota)
  228. St. Johns Virtual School (Florida)
  229. SusQ-Cyber Charter School (Pennsylvania)
  230. Texas Connections Academy @ Houston
  231. Texas Virtual Academy
  232. Texas Virtual School
  233. Tempe Union Online Learning (TUOL) (Arizona)
  234. The American Academy
  235. Treca Digital Academy
  236. TRIO Wolf Creek Online High School (Minnesota)
  237. University of California College Prep (California)
  238. University of Missouri High School
  239. University of Oklahoma High School
  240. Utah Electronic High School (EHS)
  241. Utah Tech High
  242. Utah Virtual Academy
  243. Vermont Virtual Learning Cooperative
  244. Vilas Online (Colorado)
  245. Virtual Community School Of Ohio
  246. Virtual High School Global Consortium (VHS)
  247. Virtual Learning Academy Charter School (New Hampshire)
  248. Virtual Virginia
  249. VOISE Academy High School (Illinois)
  250. Washington Online School Network
  251. Washington Virtual Academies (WAVA) (Washington)
  252. WOLF School (Nevada)
  253. West Central Learning Academy II (Ohio)
  254. West Virginia Virtual School
  255. Westwood Cyber High (Michigan)
  256. WiloStar3D-Epic Academy (Oklahoma)
  257. Wisconsin Connections Academy
  258. Wisconsin eSchool Network
  259. Wisconsin Virtual Academy
  260. Wisconsin Virtual Learning
  261. Wisconsin Virtual School
  262. Wyoming e-academy of Virtual Education (WeAVE)
  263. Wyoming Switchboard Network
  264. Wyoming Virtual Academy


See also the Wikipedia article at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_virtual_schools#United_States.

Virtual initiatives in post-secondary education

According to the Sloan Consortium's 2010 report on Class Differences: Online Education in the United States, approximately 5.6 million students were enrolled in at least one online course in the autumn of 2009. Other findings include:

  • Almost two-thirds of for-profit institutions say that online learning is a critical part of their long term strategy
  • The 21% growth rate for online enrollments far exceeds the 2% growth in the overall higher education student population
  • Nearly one-half of institutions report that the economic downturn has increased demand for face-to-face courses and programmes
  • Three-quarters of institutions report that the economic downturn has increased demand for online courses and programmes

There are no university-focused relevant federal initiatives of note. However, in July 2009 president Barrack Obama pledged to devote $12 billion over 10 years to improve programmes, courses, and facilities at US Community Colleges, with "$500 million devoted to freely available online courses". This pledge has evolved over time and is covered in more detail above under "Education Reform".

Despite the lack of national motivation, the simple scope and diversity of virtual university activity in the US cannot be underestimated. Most US universities offer at least one hybrid or fully online programme. Many institutions offer a wide range of programmes, at both the undergraduate and postgraduate levels.

Many of the "notables" are operated by for-profit, private companies, although a variety of initiatives originating in "traditional" universities were examined under Re.ViCa as well. Some major institutions/initiatives include:

There are many more. See the US category for a full list of those programmes indexed by the Re.ViCa wiki.

Lessons learnt

General lessons

The US is an unusually structured nation of 50 federated states, to which it is not always easy to compare other countries - especially those located in Europe (as they are more likely to see broad-ranging, national initiatives in education). Some of the associated issues are explored below (text prepared for Re.ViCa).

Note also that the apparent success of e-learning/online higher education in the US must be approached with care - quality may vary widely from institution to institution (and programme to programme). See note above on the complexity of US accreditation and quality control mechanisms.

Is the relevance of the US or of its states?

Text prepared for Re.ViCa and moved from an earlier section.

Hovering around 308.6 million as of early 2010, the population of the USA seems enormously large compared with that of most European countries. (For comparison, the population of the UK is estimated at 62 million, the Netherlands at 16.6 million, and Finland at 5.3 million.) Nevertheless, the federal structure of the US and the deregulated nature of its educational systems indicate that it is reasonable to look to the state level when studying e-learning in the US.

This "relevance" depends primarily on comparing US states to discrete European ones - it is extremely difficult to compare and contrast the US and Europe as a whole (in e-learning or otherwise).

The population of the EU is now estimated at over 500 million, about 1.5 times that of the US, and its inhabitants speak over 170 languages (of which 23 are considered "official"). While the US itself has no "official" language, nearly all Americans speak English, and moreover share essentially similar cultural expectations. This (in conjunction with the US's underlying federal governance structure) often results in a velocity of propagation of ideas nationwide which is rarely replicated across the EU.

Post-secondary: Do US ideas in e-learning transfer to Europe?

Text prepared for Re.ViCa and moved from an earlier section.

Many European analysts consider US universities - both large and small, public and private - more successful at developing and implementing substantial e-learning programmes than their European counterparts. Online learning in the US is indeed expanding at a remarkable and enviable pace: the average growth rate for online university enrolments has increased by roughly 13% per annum over the past seven years (compared with 2% for US "brick and mortar" enrolments). Other indicators of success include completion rates, programme sustainability over a number of years, and academic reputation.

Researchers have (understandably) questioned why the success of e-learning in US universities does not transfer more readily to a European context. Is it the economy, the geography, the demographics, or the population density; the nature of the respective educational funding models; or something else entirely? Indeed, these are but a few of the differences that may contribute to the challenge of e-learning transfer. Consider also the vast differences in quality models, academic focus, relevant public policy, language/culture, and technology uptake. In a global culture where online degrees are rapidly acquiring credibility, and students have begun to actively pursue online degrees via overseas institutions, these are critical questions to consider when pondering the future of education in Europe.

It is certain that North American ideas in e-learning form worthy comparators, and in countless cases do see transfer to Europe (and beyond). For example, many of the early course/learning management systems which formulated our earliest understanding of "online learning" in the mid-1990s were developed in either America or Canada, e.g. LotusNotes, FirstClass, Blackboard and WebCT. A distinctly American company with American attitudes and products, Blackboard learning management systems remains in common usage across Europe (despite recent trends towards OER in the market). Institutions worldwide have sought to mirror the success of the US in exporting learning via the internet.

There is also more general discussion of the "Americanisation of Education" seen in some European countries - which is too broad and controversial a topic to address here.

Whatever the ramifications, the past would suggest that European analysts should indeed examine US e-learning trends in order to better understand (and possibly predict) directions for growth in their own countries.

Notable practices

The unusually decentralised nature of US education makes it difficult to locate national practices that might be applied more broadly. Note, however, that this decentralisation seems to have stimulated the development of virtual schools within the US in an unprecedented manner. Virtual Schools may be public or private; private organisations may partner with public school systems; and online courses may be partly or purely supplemental (as opposed to full time). There is no shortage of models evolving, and it would seem that the lack of uniformity has proven a rich and fertile ground for development.

Less optimistically, there are many opposed to the dominant role that private, for-profit organisations have come to play in the development of US virtual schools (and in charter schools in particular - see description above). Many of these "academies" have been developed along the lines of a "University of Phoenix" model, and indeed are often owned by large, profit-seeking parent companies. In other words, the unique US educational landscape brings both benefits and challenges. (In this context of post-secondary education, consider the wide range of accrediting agencies, and the longstanding disputes regarding educational quality among for-profit, commercial institutions). It is difficult to judge their applicability in other contexts.

References

Recent reports (last 8 years)

Bacsich, P. (2017), Credit Transfer for Open/Online Graduate Programs: Annex 2 United States, Report for Thompson Rivers University, September 2017, Media:PLAR Masters benchmark Annex 2 United States.pdf

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For OER policies and projects in United States see United States/OER

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