Turkey

By Tom Levec of ATiT, with some help from Nikki Cortoos and others

For entities in Turkey see Category:Turkey

Turkey in a nutshell

Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye), known officially as the Republic of Turkey (Türkiye Cumhuriyeti) is a Eurasian country that stretches across the Anatolian peninsula in western Asia and Thrace (Rumelia) in the Balkan region of southeastern Europe. Turkey is bordered by eight countries: Bulgaria to the northwest; Greece to the west; Georgia to the northeast; Armenia, Azerbaijan (the exclave of Nakhichevan) and Iran to the east; and Iraq and Syria to the southeast.

Source : http://www.cia.gov

The Mediterranean Sea and Cyprus are to the south; the Aegean Sea and Archipelago are to the west; and the Black Sea is to the north. Separating Anatolia and Thrace are the Sea of Marmara and the Turkish Straits (the Bosporus and the Dardanelles), which are commonly reckoned to delineate the border between Asia and Europe, thereby making Turkey transcontinental.

The population of Turkey is around 79,749,461 (July 2012 estimate by CIA's World Factbook)

Due to its strategic location astride two continents, Turkey's culture has a unique blend of Eastern and Western tradition. A powerful regional presence in the Eurasian landmass with strong historic, cultural and economic influence in the area between Europe in the west and Central Asia in the east, Russia in the north and the Middle East in the south, Turkey has come to acquire increasing strategic significance.

Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, constitutional republic whose political system was established in 1923 under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, following the fall of the Ottoman Empire in the aftermath of World War I. Since then, Turkey has become increasingly integrated with the West through membership in organizations such as the Council of Europe, NATO, OECD, OSCE and the G-20 major economies. Turkey began full membership negotiations with the European Union in 2005, having been an associate member of the EEC since 1963, and having reached a customs union agreement in 1995. Meanwhile, as a Muslim-majority country, Turkey has continued to foster close cultural, political, economic and industrial relations with the Eastern world, particularly with the states of the Middle East and Central Asia, through membership in organizations such as the OIC and ECO.

The territory of Turkey is subdivided into 81 provinces for administrative purposes. The provinces are organized into 7 regions for census purposes; however, they do not represent an administrative structure. Each province is divided into districts, for a total of 923 districts.

Provinces usually bear the same name as their provincial capitals, also called the central district. Provinces with the largest populations are İstanbul (+12 million), Ankara (+4.4 million), İzmir (+3.7 million), Bursa (+2.4 million), Adana (+2.0 million) and Konya (+1.9 million).

The biggest city and the pre-Republican capital İstanbul is the financial, economic and cultural heart of the country.[ Other important cities include İzmir, Bursa, Adana, Trabzon, Malatya, Gaziantep, Erzurum, Kayseri, Kocaeli, Konya, Mersin, Eskişehir, Diyarbakır, Antalya and Samsun. An estimated 70.5% of Turkey's population live in urban centers. In all, 18 provinces have populations that exceed 1 million inhabitants, and 21 provinces have populations between 1 million and 500,000 inhabitants. Only two provinces have populations less than 100,000.

The population of Turkey stood at 71.5 million with a growth rate of 1.31% per annum, based on the 2008 Census. It has an average population density of 92 persons per km². The proportion of the population residing in urban areas is 70.5%. People within the 15–64 age group constitute 66.5% of the total population, the 0–14 age group corresponds 26.4% of the population, while 65 years and higher of age correspond to 7.1% of the total population. According to the CIA Factbook, life expectancy stands at 70.67 years for men and 75.73 years for women, with an overall average of 73.14 years for the populace as a whole

Turkey is officially a secular republic, with no official state religion; the Turkish Constitution provides the freedom of religion and conscience, but does not represent or promote a religion. The population of Turkey is predominantly Muslim (99%) - the majority are Sunni (75%) and a large minority are Alevi (15-25%). The small remainder of the population are mainly Christians and Jews.

Education in Turkey

Education is compulsory and free from ages 6 to 15. The literacy rate is 95.3% for men and 79.6% for women, with an overall average of 87.4%. The low figures for women are mainly due to the traditional customs of the Arabs and Kurds who live in the southeastern provinces of the country.

The Turkish Education System was built in accordance with Atatürk's Reforms after the Turkish War of Independence. It is a state supervised system which was designed to create skillful manpower for the social and economic process of the country.

Public education in Turkey is divided into five stages: Preschool, primary, middle school, high school and university. Education in Turkey has undergone many changes: there were many religious schools in Turkey but secular schools were set up under the contemporary Turkey education system which was established in 1924. Elementary school attendance was made compulsory and coeducational. Since the 1980s all children have been enrolled in school. However, pre-school is noncompulsory and mostly common in large cities. Primary school encompasses a five year program. The middle education program is coeducational as well. High school education is encouraged by restricting youth employments.

Apart from main public grammar schools, there also exist technical schools, domestic science training centers, teacher training, Islamic teacher training schools, commercial and agricultural schools and many other specialised training institutions. These specialised training institutions also include schools for children with disabilities and adult education.

The Turkish system mandates 8 years of primary education between the ages of 6 and 14, and in 2001 enrollment of children in this age range was nearly 100%. For 14-18 year olds three or more years of secondary education are available in public, distance-learning, and vocational high schools. About 95% of students attend public schools, but inadequacies of the public system increasingly motivate middle-class parents to seek private education.

In 2001 some 1,273 institutions of higher learning were in operation. Except for the Open Education Faculty (Turkish: Açıköğretim Fakültesi) at Anadolu University, entrance is regulated by a national examination, ÖSS, after which high school graduates are assigned to the limited university space available, according to their performance. Annually, about 1.5 million students graduate from Turkish high schools.

In 2002, the total expenditure on education in Turkey amounted to $13.4 billion, including the state budget allocated through the National Ministry of Education and private and international fund. The government is gradually aiming at building more classrooms and increasing the number of trained teachers and hence, reducing the number of students per class from 50 to below 30. The government has also recently stressed the importance of foreign languages and computer skills as part of the curricula. Despite the presence of a large number of Higher Education Institions offering excellent facilities, new institutions are gradually being established to meet different needs.

Schools in Turkey

Prominent Private International Schools, Preschools, Primary & Secondary Schools"

• Eden's Garden International Preschool, Istanbul
  • Nursery Program for children aged 1.5-3
  • Preschool Program for children aged 3-6
  • Summer Discovery camp for children aged 2-8
  • Baby Ballet Playgroup for children aged 0-3
  • All programs are taught in English.
• The British International School Istanbul
  • Preschool Programme
  • Primary School Programme
  • Secondary School Programme
  • Internationally recognised programmes following English National Curriculum, IGCSE and International Baccalaureate Diploma. All programmes are taught in English
• Bosphorus International Preschool
  • Preschool programme in English
  • A Turkish bilingual program is available to serve the needs of the bi-national students
• Istanbul International School
  • K12 - kindergarten-playgroups
  • Bilingual School (Turkish-English)
  • Language Classes: Finnish, Korean, Spanish; Cambridge University International Exams; Weekend playgroups; Summer school - UK summer camps
• Atolye Preschool, Istanbul
  • Preschool for children are between ages 2 and 5
  • Full day and half-day programs with both English and Turkish classes offered
  • There is also a toddler playgroup for the 0-2 age group held on Saturdays between 10:00-12:00
• Gence Preschool, Ankara
  • Accepts students from age 2 to 6
  • A curriculum concentrated on music (group and individual music courses), English learning and environmental awareness
  • School hours 09:00 to 18:00. Half day program also available. Morning, evening snacks and lunch. After-school activities are also available for children from 6 - 9 years of age
• TEIS (The English International School of Istanbul)
  • Currently accepting children aged 2 - 6 years
  • TEIS follows a British style curriculum and system, incorporating the first two classes of Primary - Reception and Year 1
• Mor Kelebek House Preschool, Istanbul
  • Toddler Program for children 0-2 years
  • Preschool Program for children from 2-5 years
  • Full day and half-day programs with both English and Turkish classes offered
• Binbir Çiçek Children`s House Montessori Preschool, Ankara
  • Toddler Class (18 months - 3 years old)
  • 3 to 6 Years Old Children Montessori Classes
  • Kids Club Classes, Gym Classes, Hobby Classes, Private English Classes
• PLUS International Preschool, Istanbul
  • Classrooms are organized to facilitate students' learning through hands-on discovery, peer interaction, and the British Curriculum's Early Years Foundation Stage
  • Program includes:
    • Everyday half an hour kinaesthetic development with a Russian teacher conducting the lesson in Russian (Yoga, Pilates, Sport, Dance)
    • Drama classes conducted in either English or French, twice a week
    • Music lessons conducted in English using the ORFF music system, twice a week

For more information regarding the above range of schools, visit the following websites: http://www.learn4good.com/great_schools/for_children_in_turkey.htm

http://www.english-schools.org/turkey/

For websites of the English language schools in Turkey, follow the link below: http://www.eslbase.com/schools/turkey

Middle Schools

Middle school is a two years program between the ages of twelve and fourteen. This level is also coeducational and has been compulsory since 1972. Statistics have schown that middle schools are fewer in rural areas since authorities do not usually enforce middle school programs. Most students in rural areas have to move long distances to attend middle school programs in the city. Middle-school graduation is a prerequisite to access to general, vocational, and technical high schools, and is deemed advantageous for admission to many vocational training programs.

High schools

Secondary school education is free in public high schools but not compulsory. The Ministry of National Education supervises the rate of Turkey literacy. The types of high schools in the Turkish education system include:

• Public High Schools, the standard type which are more than 1,300 of them in the country and commonly known as lycées (general). Lycées are coeducational institutions offering three years of college preparatory programs. Most of them in the larger cities are bilingual, teaching subjects in Turkish and either English, French, or German. Some Lycées also present opportunities for education to three largely legally recognised minorities in Turkey, the Armenians, Greeks and Jews and classes are taught in Armenian or Greek. For a complete list of all public secondary and high schools in Turkey, click on the following Wikipedia link. It should be noted however that the list below is still incomplete and sources are not trustworthy.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_high_schools_in_Turkey

• Anatolian High Schools which provide more lessons in a selected foreign language (English, German or French)
• Anatolian Imam-Hatip High Schools which have the same curriculum as Anatolian High Schools with lessons about religion
• Science High Schools focusing on science education
• Vocational High Schools, which focus on a certain type of profession (such as Tourism Vocational High Schools, Industrial Vocational High Schools and Electrical Vocational High Schools). In contrast to general education offered by the lycées, many of the vocational high schools offer four year programs. They include technical training schools for men, domestic schools for women, teacher training schools, auxilliary health care, commercial and agricultural schools, muslim teacher training schools and other specialised institutions.
• Imam-Hatip High Schools, a different type of general high school with lessons about religion
• and finally, Private High Schools, which are established by private enterprises.

Some of the foreign high schools of good international standards operating in Turkey are:

• Alman Lisesi - Deutsche Schule, Istanbul

• American Collegiate Institute, Ozel Izmir Amerikan Lisesi, Izmir

• Istanbul International Community School, Istanbul

• Lycee Charles De Gaulle, Ankara

• Lycee de Galatasaray, Istanbul

• Lycee Francais Saint-Benoît, Istanbul

• METU Development Foundation School, Ankara

• Oesterreichisches St. Georgs-Kolleg, Istanbul

• Robert College of Istanbul, Istanbul

• TED Ankara Private School, Ankara

• Uskudar American Academy, Istanbul

• Uskudar Anadolu Lisesi, Istanbul

By the year 2007, there already 7934 High Schools operating in Turkey.

Further and Higher education

(again sourced from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Turkey)

After the national university entrance examination ÖSS (Turkish: Öğrenci Seçme Sınavı) organized by ÖSYM, if they succeed, students continue with their studies at a university.

Universities provide either two or four years of education for undergraduate studies. Some universities also ask for an additional year of English preparatory study to be completed before the start of studies, unless a proficiency examination is passed.

For graduate studies, a further two years are necessary, as is typical throughout the world.

There are around 820 higher education institutions (including over 100 universities) with a total student enrollment of over 1 million and number of students normally exceeds the number of seats.

Major universities are located in Istanbul and Ankara.

Tertiary education is the responsibility of the Higher Education Council, and funding is provided by the state for public institutions that make up the bulk of the tertiary education system.

To encourage higher education a law was passed in 1983 which prohibited the employment of youths younger than fourteen.

Universities in Turkey

In Turkey, the univeristy education system is very old and it dates back to 2000 B.C. when they were seen first time on the pages of history and from that period they were the part of three separate civilizations. Turkish universities are the part of modern civilization and the major universities are situated in Istanbul and Ankara. Undergraduate studies in Turkish Universities are mainly for two or four years whereas for graduate degree it's another two years. There are 118 universities in Turkey, which are classified as either public or foundational (private) and 373,353 students were graduated from these universities in 2006. Public universities typically charge very low fees and foundational are highly expensive with fees that can reach $15,000 per annum, and as such, a majority of students in tertiary education attend public institutions. Since 1998, universities have been given greater autonomy and were encouraged to raise funds through partnerships with industry.

The quality of education at the Turkish universities varies greatly, some providing education and facilities on par with internationally renowned schools (for the technical universities, often compared with the universities in the United States, as there are several Turkish universities regularly visited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, the recognized U.S. accreditor of college and university programs, and their engineering programs deemed substantially equivalent to comparable programs at the U.S. universities), and these reflect as the popularity of a university in students' choices at the ÖSS examination.

Turkish universities actively participate in the Socrates - Erasmus program of the European Commission, aiming to increase student and academician mobility within the European Union, the European Economic Area countries, and other EU candidate states. An increasing number of Turkish university students complete a part of their studies abroad at other participating countries' universities, and Turkish universities receive students of the same status from abroad.

With the passage of law 2547, the rectors of all the public universities are appointed jointly by the faculty, Higher Education Council and the President of Turkey

Wikipedia reports in the List of universities in Turkey that there are 146 universities and academies in Turkey:

• 102 of them are State Universities (two of which are institutes of technology, four of which are technical universities and one of which is an Arts and Music-only university)
• 24 private foundation universities
• 4 military academies
• 1 police academy.

Since the list is long and comprehensive we do not repeat it here. A shorter list is the list of the 18 members of IAU - this is repeated below (see http://www.unesco.org/iau/members_friends/mem_membinst1.html)

1. Afyon Kocatepe Üniversity - http://www.aku.edu.tr/
2. Akdeniz University - http://www.akdeniz.edu.tr/
3. Ankara University - http://www.ankara.edu.tr/
4. Atatürk University - http://www.atauni.edu.tr/
5. Baskent University - http://www.baskent.edu.tr/
6. Bogaziçi University - http://www.boun.edu.tr/tr-TR/Content/Default.aspx
7. Canakkale (18th March) University - http://www.comu.edu.tr/
8. Eastern Mediterranean University
9. European University of Lefke
10. Girne American University
11. Hacettepe Üniversity - http://www.hacettepe.edu.tr/
12. Istanbul Bilgi Universitesy - http://www.bilgi.edu.tr/
13. Istanbul Technical University - http://www.itu.edu.tr/
14. Mugla University - http://www.mu.edu.tr/
15. Near East University
16. Sakarya University - http://www.sakarya.edu.tr/
17. Suleyman Demirel University - http://w3.sdu.edu.tr/
18. Uludag Üniversity - http://www.uludag.edu.tr/

There are yet further lists at http://www.columbia.edu/~sss31/Turkiye/universite.html and on Yahoo at http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Turkey/Education/Higher_Education/Colleges_and_Universities/

A more comprehensive list including their websites can be found via the following Turkish university directory link http://www.university-directory.eu/Turkey/Turkey-Universities.html

Firat University Hospital

The Firat University Hospital Center is one of the most important university centers in Turkey. This center came to existence through a protocol signed between the Ministry of Health and Firat University which took effect on 24th December 1984. It took off with the name Firat University Research and Application Hospital, while in 1997 the decision of the Senate changed the name to Firat University Medical Center. In 2008, the hospital's name was amended again to, "Firat University Hospital." Firat University Hospital today is a tertiary health care district hospital. In November 2008 Firat University Hospital had 46 professors, 64 associate professors, 41 assistant professors doctors, specialist doctors and 333 research assistants, including a total of 485 academic and 403 administrative staff, making a total of 888 staff. Other staff for cleaning and procurement are hired from personnel companies to the number of 170,800. The hospital has the following departments and units: Internal Medicine (General Internal Medicine, Rheumatology, Nephrology, Endocrinology, Gastoroentoroloji, Oncology), Dermatology, Infectious Diseases, Cardiology, Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Pediatrics, Neurology, Public Health, Family Medicine, Emergency Medicine, Psychiatry, Chest Disease, Forensic Medicine, radiodiagnostic, General Surgery, Ophthalmology, Pathology, Ear-Nose-Throat, Obstetrics & Gynecology, Orthopedics and Traumatology, Urology, Neurosurgery, Cardiovascular Surgery, Thoracic Surgery, Anesthesiology and Reanimation, Pediatric Surgery, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Phycology, Biochemistry, Microbiology and Clinical Microbiology, Immunology, Medical Genetics, parasitology, and clinics Dallarlı Department of Nuclear Medicine, Intensive Care Center, Andrology Laboratory, Acupuncture Practice Lab, DNA Analysis Laboratory, Oncology Day Therapy Unit, Pharmacy, Blood Center, and service units such as the Sampling Unit, and there are twelve operating rooms. The emergency unit is available 24 hours. For more information, visit the website via the following link: http://ftm.firat.edu.tr/

Polytechnics, Academies and Institutes in Turkey

A list of some of the major polytechniques, vocational schools and institutes and their websites are found below:

• Academic Research Institute in Turkey - http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/ARIT/
• Atatürk Teacher Academy - http://www.aoa.edu.tr/
• Beykoz Vocational School of Logistics - http://www.beykoz.edu.tr/
• Directorate General of Minerals - http://www.mta.gov.tr/v2.0/index.php
• Feza Gürsey Institute - http://www.gursey.gov.tr/
• Gebze Institute of Technology - http://www.gyte.edu.tr/
• Hacettepe University Ankara State Conservatory - http://www.konser.hacettepe.edu.tr/
• Izmir Institute of Technology - http://www.iyte.edu.tr/
• School of Sports Science and Technology | Hacettepe University - http://www.sbt.hacettepe.edu.tr/
• Turkish Academy of Sciences - http://www.tuba.gov.tr/
• Turkish National Police Academy - http://www.pa.edu.tr/
• Turkish Patent Institute - http://www.tpe.gov.tr/portal/default.jsp

Colleges in Turkey

Some of the very prominent colleges in Turkey and their websites include the following:

• Bogazici University, Business School -http://www.mgmt.boun.edu.tr/
• Graduate School of Business, Istanbul, Koc University -

http://web.ku.edu.tr/ku/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1134&Itemid=2190

• Hisar School - http://www.hisarschool.k12.tr/
• Istanbul International Community School - http://www.iics.k12.tr/
• Istanbul Technical University - School of Textile Technologies and Design - http://www.tekstil.itu.edu.tr/
• Kemer Canadian High School Programme - http://www.kemer.k12.tr/
• School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Adnan Menderes University -

http://www.akademik.adu.edu.tr/yo/turizm/index.asp?lang=1

Education reform

Post-secondary

Turkey is a full participant in the Bologna Process. For details of progress see the National Bologna Report of Turkey (2004-2005) at http://www.yok.gov.tr/duyuru/bolonya_sureci.doc

Administration and finance

Good information regarding education administration and other general details for preschools, elementary schools and high schools in Turkey can be obtained via the following link: http://www.allaboutturkey.com/education.htm#primary

Post-secondary

(sourced from http://www.yok.gov.tr/duyuru/bolonya_sureci.doc)

The Council of Higher Education is the fully autonomous supreme corporate public body responsible for the planning, coordination, governance and supervision of higher education within the provisions set forth in the Constitution (Articles 130 and 131) and the Higher Education Law (Law No. 2547). It has no political or governmental affiliation.

The President of the Council is directly appointed by the President of the Republic from among the Council members. The day-to-day functions of the Council are carried out by a nine member Executive Board serving full-time, including the President and two Vice-Presidents and all elected from among its members.

The Interuniversity Council is an academic advisory body, comprising the rectors of all universities and one member elected by the senate of each university. In addition to those, the Turkish Rectors Conference acts in an advisory capacity to the President of the Council of Higher Education.

The Center for Student Selection and Placement, ÖSYM (to all higher education institutions) functions subject to the decisions of the Council of Higher Education including both Turkish and foreign nationals.

The Minister of National Education represents higher education in the Parliament and can chair the meetings of the Council but has no vote. The decisions of the Council and the universities are not subject to ratification except for the establishment of a new university or a new faculty within an existing university.

However, a hidden or indirect governance of the state universities by the government stems from the public finance laws, which stipulate in minute detail the procedures to be followed in the preparation of annual budgets, procurement (including construction contracts), and auditing of expenditures, to which all public agencies are subject.

This indirect governance also covers the allocation of both academic and administrative staff positions to state universities. Hence, state universities, being dependent on the governmental decisions on those two issues, do not enjoy financial and administrative autonomies.

Administrative and Research Organisations

The following organizations represent certain administrative organs of higher education or at least have some thing to do with higher educational research in Turkey. Their websites are also included.

• Istanbul Vocational School Concept - http://www.ikmyo.edu.tr/
• Organisation of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) - http://www.bsec.gov.tr/
• The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey - http://www.tubitak.gov.tr/
• Turkish Astronomical Society - http://www.tad.org.tr/
• Sabanci University/Marie Curie Research Training Network (RTN) - http://www.sabanciuniv.edu/tr/anasayfa/anasayfa.php

Associations of Higher Education Institutions and Research

The following associations represent higher educational institutions and certain fields of research. Their websites are also available via the corresponding links.

• EurAsian Universities Union - http://www.euras-edu.org/
• Turk Matematik Dernegi (Turkish Mathematical Society) - http://www.tmd.org.tr/
• Turkish Social Science Association - http://www.tsbd.org.tr/
• Turkish Sociological Association - http://www.sosyolojidernegi.org.tr/
• Turkish University Rectors' Conference - http://www.yok.gov.tr/

Prominent Centers for Academic Research

The following centers represent prominent initiatives of academic research. Their websites are found in the corresponding links.

• Center for Strategic Research (SAM)

The Center for Strategic Research (Stratejik Arastirmalar Merkezi - SAM) is established to conduct research on international relations and regional studies. The Center examines international conflicts, makes scholarly and scientific assessments of relevant issues, and reviews Turkish foreign policy with a futuristic perspective. It is a consultative body with the responsibility of bringing to the attention of decision makers independent, unbiased views and findings from different sources. The Center is chartered by law and has been active since May 1995. More information can be found on their website - http://www.sam.gov.tr/default.php

• Continuing Education Center, Ankara University - http://www.ankusem.ankara.edu.tr/
• Istanbul Bilgi University, Center for European Studies, Dolapdere Campus - http://ces.bilgi.edu.tr/
• Istanbul Business Education Center - http://www.ibecedu.com/
• Marmara Research Centre (MRC) - http://www.mam.gov.tr/

Quality assurance

Post-secondary

In 2004 it was noted (in the Bologna progress report that:

By law, it is the responsibility of the Council of Higher Education and the Interuniversity Council to see to it that a national system of quality assurance with a structure and function comparable to its transnational counterparts is established and implemented. In their last meeting, both the Council and the Board have expressed their willingness to establish a national quality assurance system and re-acknowledged that the establishment of this action line has top priority in their agenda after being briefed about the existing practices by some higher education institutes in Turkey. It is expected that there will not be any need for a legislative change and, hence, the process will be completed before the 2007 ministerial meeting.

This is now seemingly set up. YÖDEK - The Commission of Academic Assessment and Quality Improvement in Higher Education (Turkey) - is now soon to be an Associate Member of ENQA.

The Council of Higher Education has also issued a set of Regulations on Academic Assessment and Quality Improvement at Turkish Higher Education - http://yok.gov.tr/duyuru/academic_assestment.pdf.

Interestingly, and still unusually, the Council of Higher Education has issued a set of Regulations on Inter-University Distance Higher Education Based on Communication and Information Technologies - http://www.yok.gov.tr/english/distance.html

ICT in education initiatives

In 2004, the government of Turkey introduced educations reforms that were geared at preparing students for a modern future that is open to cultures of other people. A policy document for integrating ICT as an indispensable part of lifelong learning was adopted for schools from basic education (Grade 1 through to Grade 8) through primary to higher education. ICT initiatives that have been completed or in progress indicate that the government is committed to the use of ICTs for management, education and training purposes. By the year 2005, 15,350 ICT classrooms had been established already with distribution of hundreds of thousands of computers for both students and teachers, instructional administrative softwares, broadband internet access options like satelite and ISDN had been provided. More than 20,000 schools had internet connections already. ICT infrastructure and operation has significantly improved ever since then with almost all levels of education making use of computer-assisted and ICT based learning.

However, there are still issues in Turkey related to few computers to ensure complete integration of ICT in the school system. There are still slow internet connections with some providers and the lack of peripheral equipments in a few schools and insufficient software in the native language.

Virtual initiatives in schools

Distance education and virtual school initiatives only started in Turkey around 1982. However, the first first distance education notion was mentioned during a meeting in which the problems of education were discussed in 1927. Distance education was seen then on as a very important way of increasing the literacy rate of the people of Turkey. Today, there are several distance education and virtual school initiatives as well as virtual campuses in several universities in Turkey.

In 1992, Open Education Faculty (see the next heading on virtual initiatives in post-secondary schools) application is taken as a model by Ministry of National Education, Film, Radio and Television Education Directorate-FRTED to carry out secondary education level of distance education. Between 2nd June and 5th June 1992, 44.151 students enrolled to the Open High School-OHS, the first virtual school initiative in Turkey, and education started in 1992-1993 school year.

In the following years the number of students increased, in 1995-1996 school year 1st semester, the number was 71.309 and in 1996-1997 educational year 90.000 students. There were more than 1,300,000 in 2008/2009. Similar to Open Education Faculty, Open High School also made use of printed material, television and radio programmes as the educational components of the system. The reasons of this increase in the number of OHS students are the removal of the exams for the graduation from normal high schools and vocational high schools without attending the courses in 1993-1994 school year and closing of "Evening Lycees".

Examples of virtual education initiatives in schools include:

• Open Primary Education School

• Open High School Turkey

• Open Vocational High School

Non-Formal Education

Nonformal education is one of the two components of the national education system. This component is for those who never received any formal education, those with a certain skill and ability who are currently enrolled in a formal education program, and those who left the formal education program without receiving a degree. Some of these non-formal educational programs are run in the form of distance education with virtual campuses in different cities while others have to attend classes in a specified institution.

The objectives of Turkey's nonformal education program are to teach reading and writing to adults who have not mastered these skills; to provide these individuals basic knowledge and, if they attended any formal education program, to build on the knowledge base of the last level they attended; and to create new opportunities that will help them earn a living. The program also explains and promotes Atatürk's reforms and principles to further develop the country's sense of national unity and solidarity. It is concerned with educating this segment of the population about new agricultural and industrial technologies and techniques so the standard of living can be improved.

Nonformal education has two components: general and vocational technical nonformal education programs. Institutes providing nonformal education include:

• Practical arts schools for girls
• Advanced technical schools for girls
• Industrial practical arts schools
• Technical education centers for adults
• Public education centers
• Apprenticeship training centers

The programs may be classified as public education, apprenticeship training, and distance education. Most of the public education programs and activities take place in formal education centers. Any individual, regardless of age or educational background, can enroll in literacy courses, vocational courses, and social and cultural courses that are offered in many of the formal education buildings.

Apprenticeship training is available to 14-19 year olds who have not received formal education, to those who completed the 8 year compulsory program but were not eligible to continue their formal education, and to those who never completed the required formal education program. Individuals between the ages of 14 and 19 who have complete the primary education program may enter a 3 to 4 year apprenticeship training program. The apprentices attend training centers one day each week for eight to ten hours of training each time. Those who complete the training program may take the journeyman examination. If they pass the examination, they receive a journeyman certificate and may take the master's examination after three years of work experience if they continue mastership training.

Every Turkish citizen may participate in distance education courses. Beginning in 1997 when the compulsory primary education program was extended from five to eight years, open primary education school programs were available for those who, under the previous national education program, had completed the required five-year program but not continued for the then optional three-year middle school program. This open primary education program allows individuals to compete the compulsory eight-year primary program. The open education high school program is available to three groups of students: those who are unable to continue their formal education, those who too old to continue in the formal education program, and those who are currently enrolled in a formal education program who prefer to complete their formal education via distance learning.

In addition to these nonformal education programs, Turkey provides educational and training services to Turkish citizens living aboard. Turkish educational consultancies in twenty-one locations and educational attaches oversee these programs. In 1999, almost 800,000 Turkish students received education abroad; over 1,000 teachers were sent from Turkey to provide the necessary instruction.

Virtual initiatives in post-secondary education

This first distance education application was initiated at Ankara University, the Faculty of Law, The Research Institute of Bank And Trade Law, in 1956. In this application, the personnel in the banks were educated through letters. In 1961, The Center For Education Through Letters was established as a sub organization of the Ministry of National Education and preparation courses were given to people who wish to complete their secondary education without physically attending courses.

Later on in 1975 and 1978 draft law proposed the establishment of "Open University", however it was not accepted. In other words, in Turkey, "Education Through Letters" (called in Turkish as being YAY-KUR) application started as a correspondence education. As an alternative to the traditional education however required efficiency and success was not achieved.

In 1970s', Eskisehir Economics and Commercial Academy, The Institute for Education Through Television became a pioneer in the area. In 1981, a campaign was started to reduce illiteracy rate in Turkey by government. In this attempt, television was an important education tool. The application achieved a considerable success and literacy rate increased. In the same year, Turkish Higher Education Council gave an opportunity to apply distance education at Turkish Universities. After these years, the developments have been faster, better planned and more scientific, more functional and more effective. In November 1981, Anadolu University was given the mission to carry out distance education application.

Therefore, Open Education Faculty-OEF- was organized and 29.479 students were enrolled to Economics and Business Administration Programs. Initially, this application had a target to reach students through printed materials, television programmes and face-to-face academic tutorials. Later on these educational components were extended to the use of video, computer, radio and newspaper, videoconference, etc. Later on, in 1993, the services Open Education Faculty offered were reorganized. With this reorganization Economics and Business Administration Programs were changed into Faculties of Management and Economics that are based on distance education method. Open Education Faculty continued to give two-year pre-licence education to its students.

Anadolu University

Anadolu University offers several e-learning services, including audio books, on-line resources, actual distance learning.

Avicenna Project

Avicenna is an ambitious virtual campus in higher education project, managed by UNESCO and co-financed by the European Commission (European EUMEDIS programme) in order to produce and adapt training distance modules within 15 European and Mediterranean Universities members, sharing best practices and pedagogical innovation through a network of E-learning centers. For more details see http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/science-technology/sti-policy/avicenna-virtual-campus/

The project aims at creating a self-sustainable virtual campus, based on cooperation among institutions of higher education in Algeria, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Italy, Jordan, Lebanon, Malta, Morocco, Palestine, Spain, Syria, Tunisia and Turkey. Installation of adequate infrastructure and intensive training of trainers are the crucial requirements of implementation of the project. The nodes of the network, the AVICENNA Knowledge Centers (AKCs), will be installed in each partner institution to support a Euro-Mediterranean network for ODL services, including production and delivery. Pedagogical resources will be stored and managed into the “Avicenna virtual library”, which forms a network knowledge data-base of pedagogical resources, tools and knowledge.

The project is dedicated to accelerating the adoption and best use of ICT-assisted Open Distance Learning (ODL) Demand for ODL in the target Universities and societies already exist. The project aims at establishing adequate local infrastructures and to transfer best practice and professional know-how within target universities. The project is named after Ibn Sina (981-1037 Ad) the most famous philosopher of his time.

For more detailed information about the project please refer to the Avicenna page on UNESCO.

Istanbul Technical University

Istanbul Technical University (ITU) established a distance learning centre in 1996. Web-based distance teaching projects have recently become an integral part of the ITU educational system. For more details see the article Turkey's eLearning Future in Checkpoint eLearning at http://www.checkpoint-elearning.com/article/1098.html

Lessons learnt

Notable practices

The Ministry of National Education Turkey partnered with Microsoft Turkey and Idea e-Learning Solutions to develop a regional and online training programme to reach the 600,000 teachers in the school system who needed convenient, accessible IT training. See http://download.microsoft.com/download/1/d/4/1d47d31f-1ee4-4610-ad02-f171ed00847d/Turkey_PiL_Customer_Evidence_FINAL.pdf.

References

Helen Chapin Metz, ed. Turkey: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1995.

http://countrystudies.us/turkey/50.htm

Turkey Academic Institutions Directory - http://www.university-directory.eu/Turkey/Turkey.html

http://www.learn4good.com/great_schools/for_children_in_turkey.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_high_schools_in_Turkey

http://www.midasebook.com/dosyalar/AOLING_PDF.pdf

http://maol.meb.gov.tr/English_Site/Meslek_Eng_AnaSayfa.html

http://www.unicef.org.tr/en/content/detail/57/appendix-the-formal-education-system-2.html

Eurydice National system overview on education systems in Europe, November 2011

Eurybase, The Information Database on Education Systems in Europe: The Education System in Turkey, 2009/10

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