United States

Partners situated in the United States

None. However, there are various American contributors to Re.ViCa, including Sara Frank Bristow and Russell Poulin. At present there are no members of the International Advisory Committee based in the US.

United States in a nutshell

(sourced from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States and https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html)

Overview

Source : http://www.cia.gov

The United States (United States of America; US, USA, or America) is a federal constitutional republic comprising 50 states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its 48 contiguous states and Washington DC, the capital district, lie between the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south.

Separate from the contiguous US, the state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to its east and Russia to the west (across the Bering Strait). The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories, or insular areas, in the Caribbean and Pacific Ocean – some are discussed below.

At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km²) and with about 309 million people, the United States is the third or fourth largest country by total area (depending on definition), and third largest by land area and by population.

The capital of the US is Washington DC and the largest city is New York, New York.

The United States is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries.

The US economy is the largest national economy in the world, with an estimated 2008 gross domestic product (GDP) of US $14.4 trillion (a quarter of nominal global GDP and a fifth of global GDP at purchasing power parity). The US emerged from World War II as the first country with nuclear weapons and a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union left the United States as the sole superpower. The country accounts for two-fifths of global military spending and is a leading economic, political, and cultural force in the world.

Government

The United States is the world's oldest surviving federation. It is a constitutional republic and representative democracy, "in which majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected by law." The government is regulated by a system of checks and balances defined by the US Constitution, the country's supreme legal document. In the American federalist system, citizens are usually subject to three levels of government: federal, state, and local; the local government's duties are commonly split between county and municipal governments. In almost all cases, executive and legislative officials are elected by a plurality vote of citizens by district. There is no proportional representation at the federal level, and it is very rare at lower levels.

The States

Wikimedia Commons Map of US states

The United States is a federal union of 50 states. The original 13 states were the successors of the 13 colonies that rebelled against British rule; most of the other states have been carved from territories obtained through war or purchase by the U.S. government. The states do not have the right to secede from the union. See the Wikipedia article on US States for a full list.

The states compose the bulk of the US land mass; the two other areas considered integral parts of the country are the District of Columbia, the federal district where the capital, Washington, is located; and Palmyra Atoll, an uninhabited but incorporated territory in the Pacific Ocean. The United States also possesses five major overseas territories: Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands in the Caribbean; and American Samoa, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands in the Pacific. Those born in the territories (except for American Samoa) possess US citizenship. These territories are considered separately in the Re.ViCa wiki.

According to 2009 estimates, the largest contiguous state, California, has 37 million people; and the next, Texas, has 25 million (according to 2008 estimates). Nine states have a population of 10 million or more: California, Texas, New York, Florida, Illinois, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, and Georgia. Eight states have populations of less than 10 but more than 6 million. 33 states have populations less than 6 million - of these, 20 states have populations in the range of 1 to 3 million.

The current list of states with their own Re.ViCa entries resides at Category:States of the United States. US regional sub-categories have been created for certain states with a high incidence of significant e-learning programmes, e.g. California and Colorado. Others may be added as activity is identified.

The relevance of the US to European e-learning

Do US ideas in e-learning transfer to Europe?

Many European analysts have deemed US universities - both large and small, public and private - more successful at developing and implementing substantial e-learning programmes than most of their European counterparts. Online learning in the US is indeed expanding at a remarkable and enviable pace; the average growth rate for online university enrolments has increased by roughly 13% per annum over the past seven years (compared with 2% for US “brick and mortar” enrolments). Other indicators of success include completion rates, a programme’s sustainability over a number of years, and academic reputation.

Researchers have understandably posed the question: Why does the success of e-learning in universities in the USA not transfer more readily to Europe? Is it the economy, the geography, the demographics, or the population density; the very nature of the respective educational funding models; or something else entirely?

Indeed, these are but a few of the differences that may contribute to the challenge of e-learning transfer. Consider also the vast differences in accreditation models, academic focus, relevant public policy, language/culture, and technological uptake – among others. Despite these manifold difference, in a culture where online degrees are rapidly acquiring credibility, and students have begun to actively pursue online degrees via overseas institutions, these are critical question to consider when pondering the future of education in Europe.

While e-learning penetration in European countries may not yet match that typically seen across the US as a whole, it is certain that North American ideas in e-learning form worthy comparators, and in countless cases do indeed see transfer to Europe (and beyond). For example, many of the early course/learning management systems which formulated our earliest understanding of “online learning” in the mid-1990s were developed in either America or Canada, e.g. LotusNotes, FirstClass, Blackboard and WebCT) – a distinctly American company with American attitudes and products, Blackboard learning management systems remain in common usage across Europe (despite recent changes in the market). Technology aside, where possible, institutions worldwide have sought to mirror the success of the US in exporting learning via the internet.

There is also more general discussion of the “Americanisation of Education” seen in some European countries - which is too broad and controversial a topic to address here.

Whatever the ramifications, the past would suggest that European analysts should examine US e-learning trends in order to better understand (and possibly predict) directions for growth in their own home countries.

Is the relevance of the US or of its states?

Hovering around 308.6 million as of early 2010, the population of the USA seems enormously large compared with that of most European countries. (For comparison, the population of the UK is estimated at 62 million, the Netherlands at 16.6 million, and Finland at 5.3 million.) Nevertheless, the federal structure of the US and the deregulated nature of its educational systems indicate that it is reasonable to look to the state level when studying e-learning in the US.

Note, however, that this “relevance” depends solely on comparing US states to discrete European ones - it is extremely difficult to compare and contrast the US and Europe as a whole (in e-learning or otherwise), for reasons including those identified in the previous section.

The population of the EU is now estimated at over 500 million, about 1.5 times that of the US, and its inhabitants speak over 170 languages (of which 23 are considered “official). While the US itself has no "official" language, nearly all Americans speak English, and moreover share essentially similar cultural expectations. This (in conjunction with the US’s underlying federal governance structure) often results in a velocity of propagation of ideas nationwide which is rarely replicated across the EU.

As of February 2010 the Re.ViCa wiki includes entries for just six US states: California, Colorado, Florida, Hawaii, Illinois and Utah. Five of these are relatively large, and each contains several institutions of interest. If this level of analysis is deemed useful, perhaps in a later phase the Re.ViCa community will wish to extend coverage.

The current list of states covered is at Category:States of the United States.

United States education policy

As outlined in a recent US Department of Education publication: Education is primarily a State and local responsibility in the United States. It is States and communities, as well as public and private organisations of all kinds, that establish schools and colleges, develop curricula, and determine requirements for enrollment and graduation. The structure of education finance in America reflects this predominant State and local role. Of an estimated $1.1 trillion being spent nationwide on education at all levels for school year 2009-2010, a substantial majority will come from State, local, and private sources. This is especially true at the elementary and secondary level, where about 89.5 percent of the funds will come from non-Federal sources. In other words, education is primarily the role of local (typically state) governments. Most decisions are made, and policies established, on that basis.

United States education system

(sourced in part from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usa#Education) As notes in the previous section, American “public” education is operated by state and local governments, and regulated by the United States Department of Education through restrictions on federal grants. In 2008, about 74 million people (both citizens and foreign nationals) were enrolled in American schools, colleges and universities.

Elementary and secondary education

Children are required in most US states to attend school from the age of five or six until 16, 17 or 18 - generally bringing them through grade 12, or twelfth grade, the end of high school.

86% of American schoolchildren enroll in the “public” (publicly funded) system. About 12% are enrolled in parochial or nonsectarian “private” (non-publicly funded) schools, and 2% are home-schooled.

Public school curricula, funding, teaching, and other policies are set through locally elected school boards with jurisdiction over school districts with many directives from state legislatures. School districts are usually separate from other local jurisdictions, with independent officials and budgets. Educational standards and standardised testing decisions are usually made by state governments, with curricula varying widely from district to district.

Individual states, counties, and school districts have considerable leeway in how they choose to divide their school levels. Ordinarily, students complete elementary school and then move on to secondary school. American secondary schools are often divided into “middle schools” or “junior high schools” (typically grades 5-8 or 6-8, though this may vary) and “high schools” (typically grades 9-12).

Middle school is seen as a conceptual bridge between elementary and high school; it does not usually occupy a separate campus or facility.

In 2008, 87% of Americans over the age of 25 had graduated from high school. High school graduates may either enter the workforce or continue education, e.g. at a higher education institution. Those who do not have high school diplomas may obtain a high school level certification by taking a GED (a.k.a. the General Educational Development; General Equivalency Diploma; General Education Diploma) test. Many government institutions and universities regard the GED as the same as a high school diploma with respect to program eligibility and as a prerequisite for admissions.

In recent years, the US has seen an explosion of virtual elementary and secondary schools, or “virtual schools” – see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_schools#United_States for more information.

Higher education

The American higher education system, like the primary and secondary education systems, is largely decentralised. With a limited number of exceptions, the federal government does not directly regulate universities (although it may award them federal grants).

The majority of public universities are operated by the states and territories, usually as part of a “state university system”. Each state supports at least one state university and several support many more. Many private colleges and universities also exist. Tuition is charged at almost all American universities, sometimes exorbitant compared to that which is more common in other countries . Many students rely on student loans and scholarships from their university, the federal government, or a private lender. By a wide margin, “state schools” tend to be the most affordable to residents from within that state. Every state has an entity designed to promote coordination and collaboration between higher education institutions.

The US higher education system is considered by many to host some of the finest universities in the world. According to the Shanghai Jiao Tong University's Academic Ranking of World Universities, more than 30 of the highest-ranked 45 institutions are in the United States (as measured by awards and research output).

The percentage of American adults with a bachelor's degree was 29%.

Accreditation in the US

It is difficult to summarise in brief the uniqueness and complexity of the academic accreditation process in the US.

• There is no single governmental accrediting body for American postsecondary educational institutions; rather, the US Department of Education (USDE) relies on 74 private and state-based accrediting agencies to provide oversight of member institutions.

• These agencies are divided into subgroups which are not considered equal among the “elite” in American academia: 16 “regional” accrediting agencies are regarded as the most selective, accrediting well regarded institutions like Harvard University and Pennsylvania State. The remaining “national,” “hybrid” and “programmatic” agencies may certify lesser-known and/or specialised entities such as Full Sail University and Texas Chiropractic College – whose students may find themselves unable to transfer earned academic credits into regionally accredited schools.

• Agencies awarded recognition by the US Department of Education are not the only ones permitted to provide university accreditation – they have simply met a certain set of USDE criteria. ‘’’Recognition is not a requirement for an accrediting body to operate legally’’’ (although without it, institutions it certifies cannot participate in federal student aid programs.

• Non-accredited institutions are often perceived as lacking in quality and rigor, and may be termed “diploma mills”.

Naturally, most postsecondary institutions do seek accreditation, and those which achieve international standing normally have accreditation from the most rigorous USDE agencies.

Community colleges in the United States

US “community colleges” are state-based, public, two-year institutions of higher education (once commonly called “junior colleges”).

Community colleges usually operate under a policy of "open admission," and are akin to “Polytechnics” in many other countries. Many students view community college as an inexpensive alternative to a pricey four-year institution; others use community college as a vehicle for subsequent acceptance to a “better” academic institution.

While most enrollees proceed directly from high school to community college, and are therefore quite young, community college is also a common venue for adults returning to education after a hiatus; professionals seeking further certification in their field (or another); or hobbyists looking for an inexpensive way to further their personal interests.

Community colleges may offer 2-year “associates degrees”; trade certification; local services to the community (e.g. library, job placement). Some are partnered with or actually part of four-year institutions, and offer courses towards a four-year bachelor’s degree.

Most community colleges are operated either by special districts that draw property tax revenue from the local community, as a division of a state university, or as a sister institution within a state-wide higher education system. In recent years, many community colleges have added online courses to their catalogues, and in some states have become hotbeds of e-learning activity.

US “Community Colleges” should not be confused with regular “Colleges”, as the latter term is used uniquely in the US to refer to four-year teaching institutions which offer bachelor’s degrees but are not attached to broader postgraduate institutions. Community Colleges almost always have “community” in their name, e.g. Wytheville Community College (Virginia) or Red Rocks Community College (Colorado).

Colleges and Universities in the United States

US undergraduate degrees in the US are typically awarded by degree-granting institutions in one of the following categories:

• Liberal Arts Colleges: Four-year, undergraduate institutions emphasising undergraduate study in the “liberal arts”. Students usually earn either a bachelor’s of arts degree or a bachelor’s of Science (BA or BS) degree.

Subjects covered include literature, languages, philosophy, history, mathematics, and science. Graduates may enter the workforce in a professional capacity, or continue on to postgraduate study at another institution.

• Universities: Four-year institutions of higher education and research, awarding both undergraduate and postgraduate degrees.

In the absence of postgraduate study programmes, an American HEI is considered a "college" – a critical difference in terminology which can confuse newcomers to the world of US education. American students often do not distinguish verbally between "college" and "university' – those attending a university would refer to this process as "going to college" while in pursuit of their undergraduate degree. (Note, though, that for historical reasons, a very small number of institutions (such as Dartmouth College or and The College of William & Mary) have retained the term "college" in their names even though they offer postgraduate degrees.)

As odd as it might seem, it is difficult to identify the precise number of "universities" in the United States - in part because of varying definitions of the term, and in part because of the diversity of potentially applicable institutions. Moreover, a US university need not be “accredited” in order to operate (see the note above on this topic).

With these caveats in mind, estimates fall in the thousands. A recent estimate by the University of Texas at Austin counts 2, 043 colleges and universities - an inventory which omits community colleges. The US Department of Education Database of Accredited Postsecondary Institutions and Programs, on the other hand, counts over 8,000 institutions – yet their count includes community and vocational colleges. And the Chronicle’s of HE’s 2009 Almanac of Higher Education counts 4,811.

See the Programmes list for numerous Re.ViCa links to US postsecondary institutions among others; or the Category:United_States for US institutions only.

Polytechnics in the US

The term "Polytechnic" is not used as such in the US. There are, however, a variety of "Institutes of Technology", "Technical Institutes" and "Technical Colleges" some of which may be considered to occupy a similar educational niche. Many of these have come to increasingly utilise distance and online learning in recent years, and may be of interest to European researchers. See also the section on “Community Colleges” above.

Higher education reform

The topic of higher education reform is not high on the US political agenda at the time of writing (early 2010), with topics such as the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan and healthcare reform looming large in the media. Given the decentralised nature of the US HE system, federal reform might not ever be as sweeping as what might be evident in other countries or unions. Nevertheless, some of the reforms (largely addressing issues of affordability and access) pressed through in 2008-2009 were as follows:

• The Higher Education Opportunity Act of 2008 – which "overhauls our nation's higher education laws, advancing key reforms that address the soaring price of college and remove other obstacles that make it harder for qualified students to go to college."

• The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) of 2009 – "with a goal to get America on track and to return to being number one in the world in high school and college graduation rates, school readiness and overall academic achievement." This included $98.2 billion in appropriations for the Department of Education, more than 1.5 times the Department’s entire appropriation for the previous year.

• The Student Aid and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2009 – whose goals include "producing the most college graduates by 2020 by making college accessible and transforming the way our student loan programs operate. It will expand quality early education opportunities that will put more children on the path to success. It will strengthen community colleges and training programs to help build a highly-skilled, innovative, 21st century workforce ready for the rigors of a global economy."

Read about numerous current issues in the realm of US Higher Education reform at the Teachnology, Inc web site: http://www.teach-nology.com/highered/reform/

The Bologna Process

The average American academic remains unaware of the Bologna Process and its significance. Yet a recent report by the Lumnia Foundation chides:

Former Secretary of Education, Margaret Spellings’ Commission on the Future of Higher Education paid no attention whatsoever to Bologna, and neither did the U.S. higher education community … Such purblind stances are unforgivable in a world without borders.

Its author, Cliff Adelman (Institute for Higher Education Policy), is among numerous vocal proponents of US participation in a process similar to that set forth by Bologna. Lumnia promotes a Bologna-like process called "Tuning", explored in reports such as The Bologna Club: What U.S. Higher Education Can Learn from a Decade of European Reconstruction, which set forth the goal of attainment of high-quality undergraduate degrees and credentials in the United States should increase from to 60% by 2025.

Adelman's efforts and those of others like him are not widely known. The spirit of harmonisation, unity and "work towards a common cause" is not one often felt across US state borders, and there are few models of cross-border cooperation that even scratch the surface of the Bologna Process's goals.

As a separate issue, European researchers have explored evidence of US hostility towards the Bologna Process itself, in terms of its perceived success in attracting foreign students who might otherwise pursue studies in the US. As an increasing number of "geographically mobile" students choose European universities over American ones, Bologna is a seen a threat – yet one that US officials have seemed unwilling to acknowledge or name. For one example of this research track, see Charlier and Croche’s 2008 piece on The Outcome of Competition Between Europe and the United States.

Administration and finance

(sourced primarily from the US Department of Education web site, http://www2.ed.gov)

Education is primarily a State and local responsibility in the United States. It is States and communities, as well as public and private organisations of all kinds, that establish schools and colleges, develop curricula, and determine requirements for enrollment and graduation. The structure of education finance in America reflects this predominant State and local role. Of an estimated $1.1 trillion being spent nationwide on education at all levels for school year 2009-2010, a substantial majority will come from State, local, and private sources. This is especially true at the elementary and secondary level, where about 89.5% of funding will come from non-Federal sources.

The US Department of Education

2007 US Dept of Ed. Structure

US congress established the US Department of Education (ED, or externally USDE) on May 4, 1980. The Department of Education is administered by the United States Secretary of Education. Its mission is “to promote student achievement and preparation for global competitiveness by fostering educational excellence and ensuring equal access.”

It is the agency of the federal government that establishes policy for, administers, and coordinates most federal assistance to education. The Department's elementary and secondary programs annually serve more than 14,000 school districts and approximately 56 million students, attending some 97,000 schools and 28,000 private schools. Department programmes also provide grant, loan and work-study assistance to about 11 million postsecondary students.

The US Department of Education fills the following roles in US education:

• establishes policies relating to federal financial aid for education, and administers distribution of those funds and monitors their use. The Department distributes financial aid to eligible applicants throughout the nation for early childhood, elementary, secondary and postsecondary education programs
• collects data and oversees research on America’s schools and disseminates this information to Congress, educators and the general public.
• identifies the major issues and problems in education and focuses national attention on them. The Department makes recommendations for education reform, advising the president in this regard and leading the Department in implementing the president’s education policies.
• enforces federal statutes prohibiting discrimination in programs and activities receiving federal funds and ensures equal access to education for every individual.

The US Department of Education does not:

• establish schools and colleges;
• develop curricula;
• set requirements for enrollment and graduation;
• determine state education standards; or
• develop or implement testing to measure whether states are meeting their education standards.

These are responsibilities handled by the various states and districts as well as by public and private organisations of all kinds, not by the U.S. Department of Education.

The Office of the Under Secretary (OUS)

ED oversees a wide variety of offices charges with various diverse tasks. The Office of the Under Secretary (OUS) oversees policies, programs, and activities related to postsecondary education, vocational and adult education, and federal student aid. It consists of the following subdivisions: Office of Postsecondary Education (OPE); Office of Vocational and Adult Education (OVAE); Office of Federal Student Aid (FSA); President's Advisory Board on Tribal Colleges and Universities (WHITCU); and President's Advisory Board on Historically Black Colleges and Universities (WHIHBCU).

The Office of Postsecondary Education (OPE)

The Office of Postsecondary Education formulates federal postsecondary education policy and administers over 40 programmes that address critical national needs in support of its mission: to increase access to quality postsecondary education.

OPE includes two major organisational components:

• Policy, Planning, and Innovation (PPI) develops postsecondary education policy and legislative proposals and is responsible for budget formulation and forecasting for programs administered by OPE.

• Higher Education Programs (HEP) administers programs that increase access to postsecondary education for disadvantaged students, strengthen the capacity of colleges and universities that serve a high percentage of disadvantaged students, provide teacher and student development resources, and increase expertise in foreign languages and area or international studies.

Additionally, Accreditation and State Liaison (ASL) has responsibility for the accrediting agency recognition process and for the coordination of activities between states and the U.S. Department of Education that impact institutional participation in the federal financial assistance programs. The National Advisory Committee on Institutional Quality and Integrity provides recommendations to the Secretary of Education regarding the recognition of accrediting agencies as reliable authorities concerning the quality of education and training offered by postsecondary educational institutions and programs.

See http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ope/programs.html for a full list of OPE programmes.

FIPSE

One of the Office of Postsecondary Education’s primary programmes is the Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education (FIPSE). FIPSE's main activity each year is conducting the Comprehensive Program, a grant programme intended to support innovative educational reform projects that can serve as national models for the improvement of postsecondary education.

The “Comprehensive Program” is FIPSE’s primary grant competition. It supports innovative, replicable education improvement projects that respond to problems of national significance at the postsecondary level. Specific priorities for funding are announced annually.

FIPSE also administers four “international consortia programs”, co-funded by FIPSE and its foreign government partners. Programs support multilateral, multi-institutional collaboration; student exchange; faculty cooperation and exchange; shared and common curricula; mutual recognition of credits; acquisition of host country languages; and apprenticeships and other work activities. The current “special focus” international competitions are:

• The European Union-United States Atlantis Program provides funding for joint or dual undergraduate degrees in a wide range of academic and professional disciplines.

• The Program for North American Mobility in Higher Education provides funding for institutional cooperation and student exchange among colleges and universities in the United States, Canada, and Mexico.

• The U.S.-Brazil Higher Education Consortia Program sponsors projects promoting institutional cooperation and student mobility between the United States and Brazil.

• The United States-Russia Program supports consortia of institutions of higher education to promote cooperation in education and science between the United States and Russia.

Read more about FIPSE’s programmes at http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ope/fipse/brochure.html

The Office of Vocational and Adult Education (OVAE)

The Office of Vocational and Adult Education (OVAE) administers, coordinates programs that are related to adult education and literacy, career and technical education, and community colleges.

OVAE oversees:

• The Division of Adult Education and Literacy
• The Division of Academic and Technical Education
• US Community Colleges

Office of Federal Student Aid (FSA)

The Office of Federal Student Aid (FSA) directs, coordinates, and recommends policies for programmes that are designed to:

• Provide financial assistance to eligible students enrolled in postsecondary educational institutions.
• Deliver grants, loans, and work-study assistance to nearly nine million students through approximately 6,000 postsecondary institutions, 4,800 lenders, and 35 guarantee organisations.
• Collect more than $150 million in outstanding loans with data systems that track 93 million student loans and 15 million Pell Grants.

The White House Initiative on Tribal Colleges and Universities (WHITCU)

The Office of the White House Initiative on Tribal Colleges and Universities (WHITCU) ensures that the nation's Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCU) are more fully recognised and have full access to federal programs benefiting other higher education institutions.

There are 36 federally recognised Tribal Colleges and Universities in the United States, serving approximately 30,000 full- and part-time students. They offer two-year associate degrees in over 200 disciplines (and some provide bachelor's and master's degree). They also offer 200 vocational certificate programs. The web site notes:

Tribal Colleges and Universities are both integral and essential to their communities. They are often the only postsecondary institutions within some of our Nation's poorest rural areas. Tribal Colleges and Universities serve a variety of people, from young adults to senior citizens, American Indians to non-American Indians. They also provide crucial services and add hope to communities that suffer high rates of poverty and unemployment.

White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities (WHIHBCU)

The White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities seeks to strengthen the capacity of Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) to provide excellence in education. A fact sheet available on the web site notes:

The nation’s Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) hold a 130-year record of significantly increasing the percentage of black Americans who are able to attend college, effectively creating cohorts of black leadership, and helping achieve economic mobilisation of African-American communities. HBCUs play the critical role of awarding more than 19 percent of bachelor’s degrees earned by African-Americans; graduating 40 percent or more of all African-Americans who receive degrees in physics, chemistry, astronomy, environmental sciences, mathematics and biology; and producing nearly 50 percent of the African-American public school teaching force.

Many HBCUs specialize in teaching students from disadvantaged backgrounds. Ensuring their continued success will play an important part in reaching the president’s goal of becoming first in the world in college completion.

Office of Educational Technology (OET)

(sourced from http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/os/technology/index.html)

The Department of Education’s Office of Educational Technology (OET) – which does not appear on the organisational chart above - provides leadership for maximising technology’s contribution to improving education at all levels. OET develops national educational technology policy and ensures that Department educational technology programs are coordinated and consistent, and support efforts across the federal government. In addition, OET supports the Department’s Mission and the President’s and Secretary’s priorities by leveraging the best modern technology to:

• support progress toward college and career-ready standards and rigorous assessments that will improve both teaching and learning;
• connect and support teachers and ensure all students have access to highly effective teaching;
• engage students and turn around low-performing schools; and
• improve student learning, teacher performance, and college and career readiness through enhanced data systems.

See http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/os/technology/techreports.html for a list of that office’s research outputs. Once has the sense that this office has languished for some time, but that this is slated to change: a draft "National Education Technology Plan" scheduled for release on March 5, 2010, will "provide the context and vision for how information and communication technologies can help transform American education."

Quality assurance

Quality Assurance in US Education is not typically overseen at the federal level. The matter is addressed by the US Network for Education Information (USNEI). It reports:

Quality assurance takes several forms in the U.S. education system. The approval of institutions and programs is generally undertaken by state agencies and accrediting agencies, with the latter also responsible for the establishment and maintenance of academic and administrative standards. Professional and academic disciplinary associations also play a role in influencing and assessing quality. Educational potential, progress, and outcomes, as well as inputs and outputs, are measured by surveys, studies, tests, and other assessments at the national, regional, state and institutional levels.

Various documents outlining assessment, evaluation, and standards activities in U.S. education at all levels (such as they exist at the federal level) can be reviewed at http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/edlite-structure-us.html. The site also offers overviews of associates, bachelor’s, and postgraduate degrees, though these are not federally regulated.

USNEI hosts a web site on Accreditation and Quality Assurance across US education. Fact sheets and URLs address the separate issues of:

• School-Level Accreditation - the accreditation process at the primary and secondary education levels and provides links to accrediting agencies recognised by state governments and other authorities.
• Nationally Recognised Accrediting Agencies - the U.S. Department of Education's directory of federally recognised accrediting agencies, both regional and national.
• Postsecondary Accreditation - describes the accreditation process at the tertiary level, including higher education, and provides links to accrediting agencies recognised by the U.S. Department of Education and that are members of the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA).
• CHEA - Directory of Recognised Accrediting Organisations is the Council on Higher Education Accreditation's directory of recognised accrediting agencies.
• Federal Recognition and Approval - the nature and limitations of the federal role in recognising accrediting agencies and in approving institutions.
• Association of Specialised and Professional Accreditors (ASPA) - national association of accreditation agencies for regulated professions.
• State Approval of Schools and Postsecondary Institutions - the process of licensing or chartering educational providers by state authorities.
• Other Quality Assurance Provisions - additional quality assurance activities in the United States.

• Diploma Mills and Fraud - information and links on the problems of unaccredited institutions, bogus accreditors and how to identify and avoid them.

Country's HEIs in the information society

Education in the US has seen rapid uptake of learning technology in all spheres, as seen in the development of virtual schools, a longstanding tradition of computer-based training among corporations, and – more relevant to Re.ViCa – though extensive hybrid and online university courses seen in nearly every US state and public university system. While only those higher education programmes deemed sizable, significant or “notable” in e-learning have received their own entries in the Re.ViCa wiki, one has the sense that not a single US university remains in that does not offer at least one fully online programme – or at least a few courses.

The USA has a complex structure of HE e-learning providers, including organisations offering both face-to-face and e-learning (usually blended) provision via different subsidiaries. There are numerous universities offering courses exclusively online; some have developed via conventional “brick and mortar” institutions, while others have evolved from traditional “correspondence schools”. While many online universities target adult and military learners, some young American students simply prefer online courses for scheduling and financial convenience. In 2008 when oil costs (and thus US fuel costs) rose astronomically, many schools saw surges in online enrolment as students decided that commuting had become to expensive.

In terms of blended/e-learning provision, players of note in the US include:

• The University of Phoenix (UOP), with over 109,000 attending via the Internet through the University’s Online Campus (out of over 213,000 students total as of May 2004). Despite the public-sounding nature of the name, UOP is a private, for-profit institution, which has been a major driver in the world of adult-oriented online learning in the past decade.
• The University of Maryland University College (UMUC), with over 110,000 online enrolments spread over 540 distinct courses online. UMUC is an actual public university, with a physical campus.
• MIT
• Carnegie Mellon, with a long tradition of insightful e-learning development

Note that there are many more. The Re.ViCa handbook offers a "World Tour" overview of notable US institutions when it comes to e-learning. See also the Re.ViCa wiki United States category for US institutions only.

Towards the information society

The US has long been considered one of the most technologically powerful nations in the world. Nevertheless, recent concerns about the future of US education, broadband infrastructure, security against terrorist attacks, and ability to maintain "fair" foreign policy agreements have cast doubt as to whether the country will indeed be equipped to lead in the new "information society".

In the past decade, its driving role in information manipulation via technology-related developments such as internet navigation (Yahoo, Google), social media tools (e.g. Facebook, Twitter), citizen media (blogs, podcasts, YouTube), and of course learning management systems (e.g. Blackboard), have seemingly reinforced its reputation as it has positioned itself to maintain its position as a world leader.

The first National Broadband Plan, to be unveiled by the Federal Communications Commission, in March 2010 may be one step in the “right” direction.

Information society strategy

A variety of offices, agencies and non-profits monitor and summarise US activity and strategy in the information society.

• The Office of E-Government & Information Technology, is part of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB)

• The IT Dashboard, launched in June 2009, allows the American people to monitor IT investments across the Federal government.

• Founded in 1969, the National Association of State Chief Information Officers (NASCIO) represents state chief information officers and information technology executives and managers from the states, territories, and the District of Columbia. The primary state members are senior officials from state government who have executive-level and statewide responsibility for information technology leadership.

• The Chief Information Officers (CIO) Council serves as the principal interagency forum for improving practices in the design, modernisation, use, sharing, and performance of Federal Government agency information resources

• As noted above, the Department of Education’s Office of Educational Technology (OET) will release its “National Education Technology Plan” on March 5, 2010, to "provide the context and vision for how information and communication technologies can help transform American education."

This is not a comprehensive list. See http://www.usa.gov/Government/State_Local/Technology.shtml for other related agencies/organisations.

Benchmarking e-learning

The term "benchmarking" – and perhaps the very concept - has not been as commonly applied in US higher education as in certain other countries. Skeptics might argue that this is due to of that country’s general tendency towards solitude and a unilateral approach to such matters. Regardless of cause, research using "benchmarking" as a keyword produces limited (and often corporate-training-related) results where the US is concerned. Where the term "benchmarking" does occurs, we find it applies in diverse evaluations:

• Interactive Quality Assessment Tool (IQAT™), http://www.iqat.org/

• Flashlight Online, via the TLT Group, http://www.tltgroup.org/Flashlight/flashlightonline.htm (powered by the Skylight Matrix Survey System, funded by FIPSE)

• National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE), Indiana University Center for Postsecondary Research, http://nsse.iub.edu/index.cfm

It is also reported that, within the sphere of influence of methodologies supported by the Higher Education Academy (UK), interest in benchmarking in the US has universities including Penn State, a member of the Worldwide Universities Network (WUN) (with which several UK universities active in the e-learning Maturity Model (eMM) benchmarking methodology are affiliated).

For a more abstract interpretation of benchmarking in the US, see http://www.usdla.org/index.php?cid=180 for a variety of reports which contain nods towards benchmarking in K-12 and general education, undertaken by the National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education; the Sloan Consortium; and others.

References

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