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=== Government ===
=== Government ===


The United States is the world's oldest surviving [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federation federation]. It is a constitutional republic and representative democracy, "in which majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected by law." The government is regulated by a system of checks and balances defined by the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Constitution  US Constitution], the country's supreme legal document. In the American federalist system, citizens are usually subject to three levels of government: federal, state, and local; the local government's duties are commonly split between county and municipal governments. In almost all cases, executive and legislative officials are elected by a plurality vote of citizens by district. There is no proportional representation at the federal level, and it is very rare at lower levels.  
The United States is the world's oldest surviving [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federation federation]. It is a constitutional republic and representative democracy, in which citizens are usually subject to three levels of government: federal, state, and local. The local government's duties are commonly split between county and municipal governments. In almost all cases, executive and legislative officials are elected by a plurality vote of citizens by district. There is no proportional representation at the federal level, and it is very rare at lower levels.


=== The States ===
=== The States ===

Revision as of 18:52, 14 July 2011

by Sara Frank Bristow

Experts situated in the United States

The list has not been finalised as of July 2011, but is known to include the following:

  • Cathy Cavanaugh, Associate professor of educational technology, School of Teaching and Learning, University of Florida at Gainesville.
  • Sara Frank Bristow, independent researcher and Sero collaborator; contributor to Re.ViCa and VISCED.
  • Russ Poulin, WICHE Cooperative for Educational Technologies; contributor to Re.ViCa.


United States in a nutshell

(sourced in part from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States and https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html)

Overview

Source : http://www.cia.gov

The United States (United States of America; US, USA, or America) is a federal constitutional republic comprising 50 states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its 48 contiguous states and Washington DC, the capital district, lie between the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south.

Separate from the contiguous US, the state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to its east and Russia to the west (across the Bering Strait). The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories, or insular areas, in the Caribbean and Pacific Ocean – some are discussed below.

At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km2) and with about 311 million people (July 2011), the United States is the third or fourth largest country by total area (depending on definition), and third largest by land area and by population.

The United States is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries. The US economy is the largest national economy in the world.

Government

The United States is the world's oldest surviving federation. It is a constitutional republic and representative democracy, in which citizens are usually subject to three levels of government: federal, state, and local. The local government's duties are commonly split between county and municipal governments. In almost all cases, executive and legislative officials are elected by a plurality vote of citizens by district. There is no proportional representation at the federal level, and it is very rare at lower levels.

The States

Wikimedia Commons Map of US states

The United States is a federal union of 50 states. The original 13 states were the successors of the 13 colonies that rebelled against British rule; most of the other states have been carved from territories obtained through war or purchase by the U.S. government. The states do not have the right to secede from the union. See the Wikipedia article on US States for a full list.

The states compose the bulk of the US land mass; the two other areas considered integral parts of the country are the District of Columbia, the federal district where the capital, Washington, is located; and Palmyra Atoll, an uninhabited but incorporated territory in the Pacific Ocean. The United States also possesses five major overseas territories: Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands in the Caribbean; and American Samoa, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands in the Pacific. Those born in the territories (except for American Samoa) possess US citizenship. These territories are considered separately in the Re.ViCa wiki.

According to 2009 estimates, the largest contiguous state, California, has 37 million people; and the next, Texas, has 25 million (2008). Nine states have a population of 10 million or more: California, Texas, New York, Florida, Illinois, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, and Georgia. Eight states have populations of less than 10 but more than 6 million. 33 states have populations less than 6 million - of these, 20 states have populations in the range of 1 to 3 million.

The current list of states with their own Re.ViCa entries resides at Category:States of the United States. US regional sub-categories have been created for certain states with a high incidence of significant e-learning programmes, e.g. California and Colorado. Others may be added as activity is identified.

The relevance of the US to European e-learning

Do US ideas in e-learning transfer to Europe?

Many European analysts consider US universities - both large and small, public and private - more successful at developing and implementing substantial e-learning programmes than their European counterparts. Online learning in the US is indeed expanding at a remarkable and enviable pace: the average growth rate for online university enrolments has increased by roughly 13% per annum over the past seven years (compared with 2% for US "brick and mortar" enrolments). Other indicators of success include completion rates, programme sustainability over a number of years, and academic reputation.

Researchers have (understandably) questioned why the success of e-learning in US universities does not transfer more readily to a European context. Is it the economy, the geography, the demographics, or the population density; the nature of the respective educational funding models; or something else entirely? Indeed, these are but a few of the differences that may contribute to the challenge of e-learning transfer. Consider also the vast differences in accreditation models, academic focus, relevant public policy, language/culture, and technology uptake. In a global culture where online degrees are rapidly acquiring credibility, and students have begun to actively pursue online degrees via overseas institutions, these are critical questions to consider when pondering the future of education in Europe.

While e-learning penetration in European countries may not yet match that typically seen across the US as a whole, it is certain that North American ideas in e-learning form worthy comparators, and in countless cases do see transfer to Europe (and beyond). For example, many of the early course/learning management systems which formulated our earliest understanding of "online learning" in the mid-1990s were developed in either America or Canada, e.g. LotusNotes, FirstClass, Blackboard and WebCT. A distinctly American company with American attitudes and products, Blackboard learning management systems remains in common usage across Europe (despite recent trends towards OER in the market). Institutions worldwide have sought to mirror the success of the US in exporting learning via the internet.

There is also more general discussion of the "Americanisation of Education" seen in some European countries - which is too broad and controversial a topic to address here.

Whatever the ramifications, the past would suggest that European analysts might examine US e-learning trends in order to better understand (and possibly predict) directions for growth in their own countries.

Is the relevance of the US or of its states?

Hovering around 308.6 million as of early 2010, the population of the USA seems enormously large compared with that of most European countries. (For comparison, the population of the UK is estimated at 62 million, the Netherlands at 16.6 million, and Finland at 5.3 million.) Nevertheless, the federal structure of the US and the deregulated nature of its educational systems indicate that it is reasonable to look to the state level when studying e-learning in the US.

Note that this "relevance" depends solely on comparing US states to discrete European ones - it is extremely difficult to compare and contrast the US and Europe as a whole (in e-learning or otherwise), for reasons including those identified in the previous section.

The population of the EU is now estimated at over 500 million, about 1.5 times that of the US, and its inhabitants speak over 170 languages (of which 23 are considered "official"). While the US itself has no "official" language, nearly all Americans speak English, and moreover share essentially similar cultural expectations. This (in conjunction with the US's underlying federal governance structure) often results in a velocity of propagation of ideas nationwide which is rarely replicated across the EU.

As of April 2010 the Re.ViCa wiki includes entries for six US states: California, Colorado, Florida, Hawaii, Illinois and Utah. Five of these are relatively large, and each references several institutions of interest. If this level of analysis is deemed useful, perhaps in a later phase the Re.ViCa community will wish to extend coverage.

The current list of states covered is at Category:States of the United States.

United States education policy

As outlined in a recent US Department of Education publication, education is primarily a state and local responsibility in the United States, with most decisions made (and policies established) on that basis. It is states and communities, as well as public and private organisations of all kinds, that establish schools and colleges, develop curricula, and determine requirements for enrolment and graduation - not the federal (central) government. The structure of education finance in America reflects this predominant state and local role. Of an estimated $1.1 trillion being spent nationwide on education at all levels for school year 2009-2010, a substantial majority comes from state, local, and private sources. This is especially true at the elementary and secondary level, where about 89.5% of the funds will come from non-federal sources.

United States education system

(sourced in part from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usa#Education)

As notes in the previous section, American "public" education is operated by state and local governments, and regulated by the United States Department of Education through restrictions on federal grants. In 2008, about 74 million people (both citizens and foreign nationals) were enrolled in American schools, colleges and universities.

Elementary and secondary education

Children are required in most US states to attend school from the age of five or six until 16, 17 or 18 - generally bringing them through grade 12, or twelfth grade, the end of high school.

86% of American schoolchildren enroll in the "public" (publicly funded) system. About 12% are enrolled in parochial or nonsectarian "private" (non-publicly funded) schools, and 2% are home-schooled.

Public school curricula, funding, teaching, and other policies are set through locally elected school boards with jurisdiction over school districts with many directives from state legislatures. School districts are usually separate from other local jurisdictions, with independent officials and budgets. Educational standards and standardised testing decisions are usually made by state governments, with curricula varying widely from district to district.

Individual states, counties, and school districts have considerable leeway in how they choose to divide their school levels. Ordinarily, students complete elementary school and then move on to secondary school. American secondary schools are often divided into "middle schools" or "junior high schools" (typically grades 5-8 or 6-8, though this may vary) and "high schools" (typically grades 9-12). Middle school is seen as a conceptual bridge between elementary and high school; it does not usually occupy a separate campus or facility.

In 2008, 87% of Americans over the age of 25 had graduated from high school. High school graduates may either enter the workforce or continue education, e.g. at a higher education institution. Those who do not have high school diplomas may obtain a high school level certification by taking a GED (a.k.a. the General Educational Development; General Equivalency Diploma; General Education Diploma) test. Many government institutions and universities regard the GED as the same as a high school diploma with respect to program eligibility and as a prerequisite for admissions.

In recent years, the US has seen an explosion of virtual elementary and secondary schools, or "virtual schools" – see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_schools#United_States for more information.

Higher education

The American higher education system, like the primary and secondary education systems, is largely decentralised. With a limited number of exceptions, the federal government does not directly regulate universities (although it may award them federal grants).

The majority of public universities are operated by the states and territories, usually as part of a "state university system". Each state supports at least one state university and several support many more. Many private colleges and universities also exist. Tuition is charged at almost all American universities, and is often exorbitant compared to that which is more common in other countries. (For the 2007–08 academic year, annual prices for undergraduate tuition, room, and board were estimated to be $11,578 at public institutions and $29,915 at private institutions.) Many students rely on student loans and scholarships from their university, the federal government, or a private lender. By a wide margin, "state schools" tend to be the most affordable to residents from within that state. Every state has an entity designed to promote coordination and collaboration between higher education institutions.

The US higher education system is considered by many to host some of the finest universities in the world. According to the Shanghai Jiao Tong University's Academic Ranking of World Universities, more than 30 of the highest-ranked 45 institutions are in the United States (as measured primarily by awards and research output).

In 2008, 29% of American adults 25 and older had a bachelor's degree.

Accreditation in the US

It is difficult to summarise in brief the uniqueness and complexity of the academic accreditation process in the US.

  • There is no single governmental accrediting body for American postsecondary educational institutions. Rather, the US Department of Education (ED) relies on 74 private and state-based accrediting agencies to provide oversight of member institutions.
  • These agencies are divided into subgroups which are not considered equal among the "elite" in American academia: 16 "regional" accrediting agencies are regarded as the most selective, accrediting well-regarded institutions like Harvard University and Pennsylvania State. The remaining "national," "hybrid" and "programmatic" agencies may certify lesser-known and/or specialised entities such as Full Sail University and Texas Chiropractic College – whose students may find themselves unable to transfer earned academic credits into regionally accredited schools. (Transfer of credits among US universities is otherwise quite common.)
  • Agencies awarded recognition by the US Department of Education are not the only ones permitted to provide university accreditation; they have simply met a certain set of ED criteria. Recognition is not a requirement for an accrediting body to operate legally - although without it, institutions it certifies cannot participate in federal student aid programs.
  • Non-accredited institutions are often perceived as lacking in quality and rigor, and may be termed "diploma mills".

Naturally, most postsecondary institutions do seek accreditation, and those which achieve international standing normally have accreditation from the most rigorous ED agencies.

Community Colleges in the United States

US "community colleges" are state-based, public, two-year institutions of higher education (once commonly called "junior colleges").

Community colleges usually operate under a policy of "open admission" and are in some ways akin to the polytechnics found in many other countries. Many students view community college as an inexpensive alternative to a pricier four-year institution; others use community college as a vehicle for subsequent acceptance to such an institution.

Most community colleges are operated either by special districts that draw property tax revenue from the local community, as a division of a state university, or as a sister institution within a state-wide higher education system. In recent years, many community colleges have added online courses to their catalogues, and in some states have become hotbeds of e-learning activity.

Community colleges typically offer 2-year "associates degrees" and/or trade certifications, as well as services to the local community (e.g. library, job placement). Some offer courses towards a four-year bachelor’s degree and/or guarantee admission to a partner university.

While most enrollees proceed directly from high school to community college, and are therefore quite young, community college is also an attractive venue for American adults returning to education after a hiatus; professionals seeking further certification in their field (or another); or hobbyists looking for an inexpensive way to further their personal interests.

US "community colleges" should not be confused with regular "colleges", as the latter term is used uniquely in the US to refer to four-year teaching institutions which do offer bachelor's degrees (but are not attached to broader postgraduate institutions). Community colleges almost always have "community" in their name, e.g. Wytheville Community College (Virginia) or Red Rocks Community College (Colorado).

Colleges and Universities in the United States

US undergraduate degrees in the US are typically awarded by degree-granting institutions in one of the following categories:

  • Liberal Arts Colleges: Four-year, undergraduate institutions emphasising undergraduate study in the "liberal arts", leading to either a bachelor’s of arts or a bachelor’s of science (BA or BS) degree. A "liberal arts" curriculum may encompass literature, languages, philosophy, history, mathematics, and science. Graduates may enter the workforce in a professional capacity, or continue on to postgraduate study at another institution.
  • Universities: Four-year institutions of higher education and research, awarding both undergraduate and postgraduate degrees.

In the absence of postgraduate study programmes, an American HEI is considered a "college" – a critical difference in terminology which can confuse newcomers to the world of US education. Americans often do not distinguish verbally between "college" and "university" – those attending a university would refer to this process as "going to college" while in pursuit of their undergraduate degree. (Note, though, that for historical reasons, a select number of US institutions (e.g. Dartmouth College or and The College of William & Mary) have retained the term "college" in their names even though they do offer postgraduate degrees.)

As odd as it might seem, it is difficult to identify the precise number of "universities" in the United States - in part because of varying definitions of the term, and in part because of the diversity of potentially applicable institutions. Moreover, a US university need not be "accredited" in order to operate (see the note above on this topic).

With these caveats in mind, estimates fall in the thousands. A recent estimate by the University of Texas at Austin counts 2,043 colleges and universities (in an inventory which omits community colleges). The US Department of Education Database of Accredited Postsecondary Institutions and Programs, on the other hand, counts over 8,000 institutions; their count includes community and vocational colleges. And the Chronicle of HE’s 2009 Almanac of Higher Education counts 4,811.

See the Programmes list for numerous Re.ViCa links to US postsecondary institutions, among others; or the Category:United_States for US institutions only.

Polytechnics in the US

The term "polytechnic" is not used as such in the US. There are, however, a variety of "institutes of technology", "technical institutes" and "technical colleges", which may be considered to occupy a similar educational niche. Many of these have come to increasingly utilise distance and online learning in recent years, and may be of interest to European researchers. See also the section on "community colleges" above.

Higher Education Reform

Given the decentralised nature of the US HE system, federal reform might never reflect the kind of sweeping mandates periodically effected in other countries or unions. Nevertheless, certain proposed and actual reforms (largely addressing issues of affordability and access) pressed through or discussed from 2008-2010 are of interest. Not all are exclusively higher-education specific. Some are detailed here:

  • The National Broadband Plan (March 2010) - relevant in its potential to transform education in the US, as noted in the report itself. Despite early advances in the arena, for nearly 10 years the United States has lagged behind many other developed countries in the adoption of broadband technology. America's first National Broadband Plan recommends sweeping improvements to US broadband governance, infrastructure, affordability, and deployment, dedicating $15.5 billion to broadband deployment over the next decade.
  • The draft National Educational Technology Plan" - not higher-education specific, but extremely relevant. Released on March 5 2010, the plan outlines "ways in which information and communication technologies can be leveraged to help transform American education". It details five specific goals with recommendations for states, districts, the federal government, and other stakeholders in the US education system that address learning, assessment, teaching, infrastructure, and productivity. A wide variety of stakeholders played a role in developing the new plan: see http://www.ed.gov/technology/netp-2010/how-plan-developed for details.
  • The Student Aid and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2009 – whose goals include "producing the most college graduates by 2020 by making college accessible and transforming the way our student loan programs operate. It will expand quality early education opportunities that will put more children on the path to success. It will strengthen community colleges and training programs to help build a highly-skilled, innovative, 21st century workforce ready for the rigors of a global economy."
  • Announcement by President Obama in July, 2009 - A promise to devote $12 billion over 10 years to improve programs, courses, and facilities at US community colleges, with $500 million devoted to freely available online courses. As of April 2010 the future of most of these declarations was unclear (although portions were realised in the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010).

Read about numerous current issues in the realm of US Higher Education reform at the Teachnology, Inc. web site: http://www.teach-nology.com/highered/reform/

The Bologna Process

The average American academic remains unaware of the Bologna Process and its significance. Yet a recent report by the US-based Lumina Foundation chides:

Former Secretary of Education, Margaret Spellings’ Commission on the Future of Higher Education paid no attention whatsoever to Bologna, and neither did the U.S. higher education community… Such purblind stances are unforgivable in a world without borders.

This report's author, Cliff Adelman (Institute for Higher Education Policy), is among numerous vocal proponents of US participation in a process similar to that set forth by Bologna. Lumina promotes "Tuning", explored in papers such as The Bologna Club: What U.S. Higher Education Can Learn from a Decade of European Reconstruction - which set forth the goal that attainment of high-quality undergraduate degrees and credentials in the United States should increase to 60% by 2025.

Adelman's efforts and those of others like him are not widely known. Bologna's spirit of harmonisation, unity and "work towards a common cause" is not often felt across US state borders, and there are few models of cross-border cooperation that even scratch the surface of the Bologna Process's goals.

As a separate issue, some European researchers have explored evidence of US hostility towards the Bologna Process itself, in terms of its perceived success in attracting overseas students who might otherwise pursue studies in the US. As an increasing number of "geographically mobile" students choose European universities over American ones, some believe that Bologna is a seen as a threat – yet one that US officials have been unwilling to acknowledge or name. For one example of this research track, see Charlier and Croche's 2008 piece on The Outcome of Competition Between Europe and the United States.

Administration and finance

(sourced largely from the US Department of Education web site, http://www2.ed.gov)

The US Department of Education

2007 US Department of Education

US Congress established the US Department of Education (ED, or externally USDE) on May 4, 1980. The Department of Education is administered by the United States Secretary of Education. Its mission is "to promote student achievement and preparation for global competitiveness by fostering educational excellence and ensuring equal access."

ED is the agency of the federal government that establishes policy for and administers most federal assistance to education. Its elementary and secondary programs serve more than 14,000 school districts and 56 million students, attending some 97,000 schools and 28,000 private schools. Department programmes also provide financial assistance to about 11 million postsecondary students.

The US Department of Education does:

  • Establish policies relating to federal financial aid for education, and administer distribution of those funds and monitor their use. Distribute financial aid to eligible applicants throughout the nation for early childhood, elementary, secondary and postsecondary education programmes.
  • Collect data and oversee research on America’s schools, and disseminate this information to Congress, educators and the general public.
  • Identify the major issues and problems in education and focus national attention on them. Make recommendations for education reform, advising the president and implementing his/her education policies.
  • Enforce federal statutes prohibiting discrimination in programmes receiving federal funds, and ensure equal access to education.

The US Department of Education does not:

  • Establish schools and colleges
  • Develop curricula
  • Set requirements for enrollment and graduation
  • Determine state education standards
  • Develop or implement testing to measure whether states are meeting their education standards

These are responsibilities handled by various states and districts, as well as by public and private organisations.

(Note that in March 2010 President Obama announced planned changes to the "No Child Left Behind" Program which may enforce new Federal standards; this section will be updated accordingly.)

The Office of the Under Secretary (OUS)

ED oversees a wide variety of offices charges with various diverse tasks. The Office of the Under Secretary (OUS) oversees policies, programmes, and activities related to postsecondary education, vocational and adult education, and federal student aid. It consists of the following subdivisions: Office of Postsecondary Education (OPE); Office of Vocational and Adult Education (OVAE); Office of Federal Student Aid (FSA); President's Advisory Board on Tribal Colleges and Universities (WHITCU); and President's Advisory Board on Historically Black Colleges and Universities (WHIHBCU). These are examined in brief below.

The Office of Postsecondary Education (OPE)

The Office of Postsecondary Education formulates federal postsecondary education policy and administers over 40 programmes that address critical national needs in support of its mission: to increase access to quality postsecondary education.

OPE includes two major organisational components:

  • Policy, Planning, and Innovation (PPI) develops postsecondary education policy and legislative proposals and is responsible for budget formulation and forecasting for programmess administered by OPE.
  • Higher Education Programs (HEP) administers programmes that increase access to postsecondary education for disadvantaged students, strengthen the capacity of colleges and universities that serve a high percentage of disadvantaged students, provide teacher and student development resources, and increase expertise in foreign languages and international studies.

Additionally, Accreditation and State Liaison (ASL) has responsibility for the accrediting agency recognition process and for the coordination of activities between states and the US Department of Education that impact institutional participation in the federal financial assistance programs. The National Advisory Committee on Institutional Quality and Integrity provides recommendations to the Secretary of Education regarding the recognition of postsecondary accrediting agencies.

See http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ope/programs.html for a full list of OPE programmes.

FIPSE

One of the US Office of Postsecondary Education's primary programmes is the Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education (FIPSE). FIPSE's main activity each year is conducting the Comprehensive Program, a grant programme intended to support innovative, replicable postsecondary education improvement projects.

FIPSE also administers four international consortia programmes, co-funded by foreign government partners. Programmes support multi-institutional collaboration; student exchange; faculty cooperation and exchange; shared and common curricula; mutual recognition of credits; acquisition of host country languages; and apprenticeships and other work activities. The current "special focus" international competitions are:

  • The United States-Russia Program - supports consortia of institutions of higher education to promote cooperation in education and science between the United States and Russia.

Read more about FIPSE’s programmes at http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ope/fipse/brochure.html

The Office of Vocational and Adult Education (OVAE)

The Office of Vocational and Adult Education (OVAE) administers and coordinates programmes related to adult education and literacy, career and technical education, and community colleges.

OVAE oversees:

  • The Division of Adult Education and Literacy
  • The Division of Academic and Technical Education
  • US Community Colleges
Office of Federal Student Aid (FSA)

The Office of Federal Student Aid (FSA) directs, coordinates, and recommends policies for programmes that are designed to:

  • Provide financial assistance to eligible students enrolled in postsecondary educational institutions.
  • Deliver grants, loans, and work-study assistance to nearly nine million students through approximately 6,000 postsecondary institutions, 4,800 lenders, and 35 guarantee organisations.
  • Collect more than $150 million in outstanding loans with data systems that track 93 million student loans and 15 million Pell Grants.
The White House Initiative on Tribal Colleges and Universities (WHITCU)

The Office of the White House Initiative on Tribal Colleges and Universities (WHITCU) ensures that the US's Tribal Colleges and Universities (TCU) are fully recognised and have full access to federal programs benefiting other higher education institutions.

There are 36 federally recognised Tribal Colleges and Universities in the United States, serving approximately 30,000 full- and part-time students. They offer two-year associate degrees in over 200 disciplines (and some provide bachelor's and master's degree). They also offer 200 vocational certificate programs. The WHITCU web site notes:

Tribal Colleges and Universities are both integral and essential to their communities. They are often the only postsecondary institutions within some of our Nation's poorest rural areas. Tribal Colleges and Universities serve a variety of people, from young adults to senior citizens, American Indians to non-American Indians. They also provide crucial services and add hope to communities that suffer high rates of poverty and unemployment.
White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities (WHIHBCU)

The White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities seeks to strengthen the capacity of Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) to provide excellence in education. A fact sheet available on the web site notes:

The nation’s Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) hold a 130-year record of significantly increasing the percentage of black Americans who are able to attend college, effectively creating cohorts of black leadership, and helping achieve economic mobilisation of African-American communities. Many HBCUs specialise in teaching students from disadvantaged backgrounds.
Office of Educational Technology (OET)

(sourced from http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/os/technology/index.html)

The Department of Education’s Office of Educational Technology (OET) provides leadership for maximising technology’s contribution to improving education at all levels. OET develops national educational technology policy, ensures that the department's programmes are coordinated and consistent, and supports efforts across the federal government. OET leverages the best modern technology to:

  • Support progress toward college and career-ready standards and rigorous assessments that will improve both teaching and learning;
  • Connect and support teachers and ensure all students have access to highly effective teaching;
  • Engage students and turn around low-performing schools; and
  • Improve student learning, teacher performance, and college and career readiness through enhanced data systems.

OET released the National Educational Technology Plan (NETP) in March 2010; see the "Reforms" section above for more information.

See http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/os/technology/techreports.html for a list of OET's previous research outputs.

Quality assurance

Quality Assurance in US Education is not typically overseen at the federal level. The matter is discussed by the US Network for Education Information (USNEI), which reports:

Quality assurance takes several forms in the U.S. education system. The approval of institutions and programs is generally undertaken by state agencies and accrediting agencies, with the latter also responsible for the establishment and maintenance of academic and administrative standards. Professional and academic disciplinary associations also play a role in influencing and assessing quality. Educational potential, progress, and outcomes, as well as inputs and outputs, are measured by surveys, studies, tests, and other assessments at the national, regional, state and institutional levels.

Various documents outlining assessment, evaluation, and standards activities in U.S. education at all levels can be reviewed at http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/edlite-structure-us.html. The site also offers overviews of associates, bachelor’s, and postgraduate degrees - though these are not federally regulated.

USNEI hosts a web site on Accreditation and Quality Assurance across US education. Fact sheets and URLs address the separate issues of:

USA's HEIs in the information society

Education in the US has seen rapid uptake of learning technology in all spheres, seen in many areas including the development of virtual schools, a longstanding tradition of computer-based training among corporations, and – more relevant to Re.ViCa – in the increasing popularity of hybrid and online university courses. While only those higher education programmes deemed sizable, significant or otherwise "notable" in e-learning terms have their own entries in the Re.ViCa wiki, one has the sense that not a single US university remains which does not offer online courses.

The USA has a complex structure of HE e-learning providers, including organisations offering both face-to-face and e-learning (usually blended) provision via different subsidiaries. There are numerous universities offering courses exclusively online; some have developed via conventional "brick-and-mortar" institutions, while others have evolved from traditional "correspondence (distance-learning) schools". While many online universities target adult and military learners, some young American students simply prefer online courses for scheduling and financial convenience. In 2008 when global oil costs (and thus US fuel costs) rose astronomically, many schools saw surges in online enrolment as students decided that commuting had become too expensive.

In terms of blended/e-learning provision, some players of note in the US include:

  • The University of Phoenix (UOP), with over 109,000 attending via the Internet through the University’s Online Campus (out of over 213,000 students total as of May 2004). Despite the public-sounding nature of the name, UOP is a private, for-profit institution, which has been a global driver of adult-oriented online learning in the past decade.
  • The University of Maryland University College (UMUC), with over 110,000 online enrolments spread over 540 distinct courses online. UMUC is an actual public university, with a physical campus.
  • MIT, known in particular for its OpenCourseWare initiative

There are many more. The Re.ViCa Handbook offers a "World Tour" overview of notable US institutions when it comes to e-learning; see also the Re.ViCa wiki's United States category for US institutions only; or the section below for a longer list.

Towards the information society

The US has long been considered one of the most technologically powerful nations in the world. Nevertheless, recent concerns about the quality of US primary education, broadband infrastructure, security against terrorist attacks, and ability to maintain "fair" foreign policy agreements have cast doubt as to whether the country will indeed be equipped to lead in the new "information society".

In the past decade, the US's driving role in information manipulation via technology-related developments such as internet navigation (Yahoo, Google), social media tools (e.g. Facebook, Twitter), citizen media (blogs, podcasts, YouTube), and of course learning management systems (e.g. Blackboard), have seemingly reinforced its reputation as it has positioned itself to maintain its position as a world leader. Moreover, the current administration has unveiled a series of internet- and education-related initiatives which promise a solid foundation moving forward.

Information society strategy

A variety of offices, agencies and non-profits monitor and direct US activity and strategy in the information society.

  • The Federal Communications Commission, an independent US government agency, regulates interstate and international communications by radio, television, wire, satellite and cable. (As noted above, it has unveiled the first US National Broadband Plan in March 2010, reinforcing the notion that all Americans are entitled to "affordable access to robust and reliable broadband products and services".)
  • The Department of Education’s Office of Educational Technology (OET) supports the use of technology in education. (It released its draft "National Education Technology Plan" in March 2010 to "provide the context and vision for how information and communication technologies can help transform American education" - see details above.)
  • The IT Dashboard, launched in June 2009, allows the American people to monitor IT investments across the Federal government.
  • Founded in 1969, the National Association of State Chief Information Officers (NASCIO) represents state chief information officers and information technology executives and managers from the states, territories, and the District of Columbia. The primary state members are senior officials from state government who have executive-level and statewide responsibility for information technology leadership.
  • The Chief Information Officers (CIO) Council serves as the principal interagency forum for improving practices in the design, modernisation, use, sharing, and performance of Federal Government agency information resources

This is not a comprehensive list - and in particular does not identify any state or regional programmes (of which there are many). See http://www.usa.gov/Government/State_Local/Technology.shtml for more related agencies/organisations.

Benchmarking e-learning

The term "benchmarking" – and perhaps the very concept - has not been as commonly applied in US higher education as in many other countries. Skeptics might argue that this is due to of that country’s general tendency towards solitude and unilateralism in these matters. Where the term "benchmarking" does occur in reference to e-learning, we find it applied in diverse (and often corporate-training-related) evaluation methodologies and systems:

For a more abstract interpretation of "benchmarking" in the US, see the Educational Research Reports Center at the United States Distance Learning Association (USDLA) for a variety of reports which compare approaches to e-learning in K-12 and general education, undertaken by the National Center for Education Statistics, US Department of Education; the Sloan Consortium; and others.

Virtual Campus Initiatives in Higher Education

As noted above, most US universities offer at least one hybrid or fully online program. Many institutions offer a wide range of programmes, at both the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. There are no relevant federal initiatives of note.

Many of the "notables" are operated by for-profit, private companies, although a variety of initiatives originating in "traditional" universities are examined as well. Some major institutions/initiatives include:

There are many more. See the US category for a full list of those programmes indexed by the Re.ViCa wiki.

Lessons learnt

Some countries - like the US - offer regional initiatives which merit study alongside national ones. The decentralised approach to US education renders it suitable for study by European analysts.

The apparent success of e-learning/online higher education in the US must be approached with care - quality may vary widely from institution to institution (and programme to programme). One must always remember that the US accreditation mechanisms are complex and not subject to federal standardisation (per se); and that there are certainly some US online universities which operate legally without any accreditation, respected or otherwise.

References


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