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Sweden from Re.ViCa
Sweden in a nutshell
Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Area-wise, it is one of the largest countries in Europe. Its population is around 9 million or on average 20 inhabitants per square kilometer. The population is very unevenly distributed: some 84 % live in urban areas, and about one third in the 3 major cities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö.
Sweden is a constitutional monarchy (parliamentary democracy). It has been a member of the European Union since 1995, but it has not joined the European Monetary Union. The capital and largest city is Stockholm, with a population of around 800,000 and metropolitan area of 2 million. The official language is Swedish.
Swedish education policy
Sweden has a strong social-democratic tradition which stresses the redistributive role of state, social inclusion and equality, underpinned by high levels of taxation and public spending. The education system is an integral component of the Swedish concept of the welfare state, and the Swedish spending on education is, indeed, amongst the highest in the world.
Swedish education system
The Swedish education system consists of a compulsory comprehensive nine-year school, a three-year upper-secondary school with pre-academic as well as vocational programs, and a unitary higher education sector that includes academic, professional and vocational programs. There is also a specific sector, the folk high schools, that provides adult education at all levels, ranging from basic school qualifications to vocational programs, some of which can be described as offering an alternative to higher education.
Additionally, municipal adult education offers education at compulsory and upper-secondary school level for those lacking these qualifications as well as vocational training for adults. Advanced Vocational Education is a form of vocational post-secondary education designed and carried out in close co-operation between enterprises and course providers (higher education, upper-secondary schools, municipal adult education and companies).
Equal access to education has long been one of the pillars of the Swedish welfare state. Education from primary school to higher education is mainly tax financed and free of charge to the student. The main distinguishing feature of HE from other forms of education is that HE is based on science or art and on tested experience.
Higher education in Sweden
Swedish tertiary education is provided mainly in the higher education sector, which comprises universities and university colleges. Today, there are 14 state universities, 22 state university colleges, 3 private institutions with undergraduate as well as postgraduate education, and a number of smaller private institutions. The HEIs range from large multi-faculty institutions to specialized institutions of different sizes.
In 1977, the Swedish system was transformed from a binary system of higher education to a formally unitary one comprising academic, vocational and longer and shorter professional programs. In the later part of the 20th and early 21st century higher education has expanded significantly and new institutions have been founded throughout Sweden. The last 15 years have seen a large increase in the number of students as well.
In academic year 2007 – 2008, the Swedish HEIs adopted a new degree structure that conforms to the Bologna Process. The new degree structure creates three levels of higher education – a first level, second level, and third level – each with minimum requirements for entry (see picture 4). Degrees awarded at each level are defined in terms of the expected results and abilities of students. Sweden has also introduced a new credit system, which is compatible with the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS). Under the new system, one academic year of full-time studies is equivalent to 60 higher education credits.
First level
At the first level of study, there are two degree options: the University Diploma, achievable after two years of study (120 ECTS), and the Bachelor's Degree, achievable after three years (180 ECTS). One prerequisite for starting higher education studies at the first level is the successful completion of an upper secondary school education.
Second level
At the second level of study, there are also two degree options:
- There is a new two-year master’s degree - Degree of Master (Two Years) (120 ECTS). Authorization to award the Degree of Master is given to state universities and other higher education institutions that are approved for research in one or more disciplinary domains, and to private education providers that are authorized to award doctorates and licentiates in a disciplinary domain. Other higher education institutions have to apply to the Swedish National Agency for Higher Education (state education providers) or the Government (private education providers) for authorization to award the degree.
- The Degree of Master (One Year) (60 ECTS) is limited to one-year study programs only.
A prerequisite for studying at the second level is the completion of at least three years at first level at a Swedish higher education institution, or the international equivalent – such as a three-year bachelor’s degree (180 higher education credits). Specialized knowledge may also suffice.
Third level
At the third level of study, students are eligible for a Licentiate Degree after two years of research (120 ECTS), and a Doctoral Degree (PhD) after fours years of research (240 ECTS). A prerequisite for studies at the third level is possession of a second-level degree – a Degree of Master (Two Years) or a Degree of Master (One Year) – or the completion of four years of full-time studies – three at the first level and at least one year at the second level. Comparable international degrees are also admissible, and specialized knowledge may suffice as well.
Sweden has seen an impressive growth in tertiary qualification over the past generations. Among the younger population (25-34 -year-olds), 37 % hold a university degree in comparison with 25 % among the 55-64 -year-olds. Graduation from traditional universities stands at 37.7 %. Sweden is also one of the European countries, of which graduation rate from advanced research programs (PhD or equivalent) exceeds 2.0 % (Sweden: 2.2%).
The share of international education market is relatively modest for Sweden which receives 1.4 % of all foreign students enrolled in tertiary education. However, Sweden still places itself well ahead of its Nordic neighbors. In 2005, international students comprised 4.4 % of all tertiary enrolment (76 %) in Sweden.
Higher education reform
Tertiary education in Sweden has expanded substantially, not least in terms of students, and gone through many transformations since 1990. Among the most important changes are the introduction of a decentralized system of governance for higher education and a stringent quality evaluation system, reformed research funding, and the establishment of a new form of tertiary education outside the HE system.
As a consequence of the Bologna Process, a number of important changes have also been implemented. In academic year 2007 – 2008, the Swedish HEIs adopted a new degree structure that conforms to the Bologna Process. Additionally, Sweden has introduced a new credit system, which is compatible with the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS).
Administration and finance
Like all other public administration sectors in Sweden, also higher education is subject to management by objectives and results. State higher education institutions in Sweden are formally Government agencies, subject to the same general body of legislation as other agencies, but with a complementary set of sector-specific laws and regulations designed, among other things, to safeguard academic freedom.
Decision making in HE is decentralized, with a relatively high degree of powers and responsibilities having been delegated to the institutions. The Government decides on objectives and specifies the required results, while it is the responsibility of the institutions to ensure that the activities are carried out in the best possible way. There is a substantial amount of freedom for the institutions to decide on the use of their resources and organization of their activities as well as their educational profile. The institutions are required to report back to the Government in various ways.
Higher education and research in Sweden, as a whole, is financed predominantly by public funds, mainly via direct allocations from the state to the institutions. However, the proportion allocated directly in relation to other funding sources differs for undergraduate and graduate studies on the one hand and for research and doctoral studies on the other. In total, over 85% of the revenues for higher education, excluding research and doctoral studies, consist of direct state allocations. The proportion of funding received by the HEI’s for research and doctoral studies from direct state allocations is substantially lower.
Quality assurance
The Swedish National Agency for Higher Education is responsible for the quality evaluation. A national quality assurance system was developed in 2001, when the national agency was commissioned by the Swedish Government to evaluate all academic subjects and vocational programs at all higher education institutions over a six-year period of 2001 – 2007. The Swedish National Agency for Higher Education has completed two rounds of quality audits of higher education institutions.
A new quality assurance system was launched in 2007. The new system is made up of five different components. These are:
- Audits of the quality assurance mechanisms of higher education institutions,
- Evaluations of subjects and programs,
- Appraisals of the entitlement to award degrees,
- Thematic evaluations and thematic studies,
- Identification of centers of educational excellence.
Swedish HEIs in the information society
- NB: UNDER CONSTRUCTION
A country online
As in other countries, investments in information technology have been relatively high over the decades. The use of radio, television, video, and computers in education and training has been investigated and discussed by state commissions one after another. The decades of development work and various committees have, indeed, had its effect: common awareness and investments in technology infrastructure have been increased. A large variety of technical equipment and fast communication networks have also been successively installed. A turning point came in the mid 1990s, and some of the main factors behind it were:
- very strong demonstration of official policy on the introduction of IT;
- setting-up of agents for change supporting development of education systems;
- pushes and pulls – more space for local initiatives.
In February 1994, the Swedish Prime Minister Carl Bildt gave a speech about setting a new political agenda for the transformation of Sweden into a nation drawing upon the resources of information technology. He formed an IT Commission where he himself was a chair and many of the other ministers of his government were delegates. Included in the commission were also researchers and representatives of business and industry. The idea was to initiate, promote and get IT-related transformations in all sectors of society, and the main task for the commission was to highlight the possibilities of IT, to identify limitations and pave the way for the introduction of it. Also an IT policy was developed.
From 1994 onwards, the idea was to invest approximately one billion Swedish crowns (€ 110 million) per year in research and development work. Up till 2003, that most probably also was the case. Altogether development programs, foundations, research schemes, national agencies and authorities, and municipalities some years spent more than that. All in all, the fact that the government itself tried to demonstrate good practice, to be a spearhead in the introduction of IT, was of high importance.
The prosperous future of e-learning
When in many other countries open universities were created, Sweden chose not to build a single-mode institution for distance education. Instead an extremely decentralized system was set up for the tertiary level. The responsibility for carrying out distance education rested with the individual university departments, which at the same time organized traditional forms of university education. Thus, a dual-mode system was created.
At the beginning of 1990s, about 800 distance education courses were arranged. A majority of those courses, however, had either no distance education at all or were courses with just a few distance education elements. Even though small changes over the years were shown, the state-of-the-art was not at all up to the standards expected by the authorities. On the other hand, the number of students following distance education courses in the academic year 1994 – 1995 was 25,800, which was an increase of 60 % over a couple of years and about 10 % of the student population.
During the 70s, 80s and 90s, the ambitions of the government were to increase the extent of distance education. In the light of history, the actions taken for improving that field can be described as four steps (Umeå University, The University Consortia, Dukom and Distum, Nätuniversitetet), each of which was a trial of alternative strategies. (Holmberg. 2003)
Umeå University
In the late 1980s, the government made a first large-scale attempt by concentrating funds and efforts on a development program at Umeå University. The overarching purpose was to contribute to rural development in the northern sparsely populated areas of the country.
The University Consortia
The second step was taken by the government through making resources available to stimulate co-operation between universities. By gathering expertise from different institutional bodies and bringing a diversity of stakeholder perspectives together, new and more potent organizers of distance education could grow. This brought about the establishment of a number of university consortia with the purpose of developing distance education in joint projects.
Dukom and Distum
The third step was taken through forming the Commission on Distance Methods within Education. The Minister of Education appointed the Commission during 1995 with the assignment to outline strategies for distance education policy. A national web site with tools for Distance Teaching and Distance Studies was to be organized. Additionally, research in the field of distance education was to be informed about.
In July 1999, the Swedish Agency for Distance Education (Distum) commenced its operations in Härnösand in the north of Sweden. The agency promoted the development and application of distance education based on information and communication technologies (ICT-based distance education). The operations encompassed universities/colleges and popular public education throughout the country. In March 2002, however, the Ministry of Education and Science decided to close the agency.
Swedish Net University
The fourth route towards a more pluralistic way of teaching and learning at the universities has been tested since 2002, when the Swedish government decided to set up the Swedish Net University. In the first two years, approximately 371 million SEK (€ 41 million) was spent on this project.
Quality assurance and e-learning in Sweden
In Sweden, the same universities and university colleges that organize campus based education also offer e-learning courses and programs. This system is commonly called dual mode. The policy in Sweden is that the same fundamental quality requirements should apply to e-learning as to campus based higher education. However, there is also a consensus that there are significant differences between e-learning and campus based education. To address these differences, adjustments in the methods of evaluating higher education are required. Traditional quality criteria and evaluation methods do not identify and assess the new aspects of higher education introduced by e-learning.
In 2002 – 2003, a report on the quality of IT-supported distance education was compiled under the auspices of the Swedish Net University Agency. The report focused on quality audits and defined four main quality processes (Swedish National Agency for Higher Education. 2008a):
- Accessibility
- Widening participation
- Transfer of credits
- Educational development
Virtual initiatives in HE
Swedish Net University
- NB: UNDER CONSTRUCTION
During the 1990s, distance education within Swedish higher education developed through individual initiatives of teachers and some departments of institutions. This was followed by some joint initiatives between several Swedish universities and other HE institutions with the purpose to offer courses and sometimes programs in joint ventures. Three main consortia emerged. The first was founded in 1993 through an agreement between the universities of Linköping, Umeå, Uppsala and Växjö, and the KTH. It was simply named The DE-Consortium. Later on, in 1996, Lunds University joined the consortium. The formation of this organization was a response to the ministry initiative about the need for collaboration in the development of distance education in the light of ICT development.
Another consortium that was founded in the mid-90s was ‘Svenska distanshögskolan’ which was a co-operation between higher education institutions in Gävle, Blekinge and Örebro, Mid Sweden University, TBV (a corporate actor in education in Sweden) and UR (the national educational TV-channel). The third big consortium that was formed in the mid-90s was ‘Västsvenska konsortiet för flexibelt lärande’. It was founded by Göteborg University together with the nearby university colleges in Borås, Trollhättan, Uddevalla, Skövde and the University of Karlstad.
The three consortia had somewhat similar agendas, although, of course, there were differences. The size of their total activities by the turn of the century was in the proximity of 6,000 students studying 40 – 50 courses equivalent to about 7 to 15 ECTS each. The majority of students were adults who were in the work force, i.e. employed people. By the end of year 2000, ‘Distanskonsortiet’ suggested that a virtual university should be formed in a joint venture by the three consortia. This proposal, however, did not receive funds from the government. Instead a national net university, including all Swedish HEIs, was suggested.
Interestingly, the government also expressed the pre-assumption that the so called DE-consortia would be deconstructed in connection with the construction of the net university. This basically meant that no more funds would be allocated directly to the operations of the consortia. Some activities, however, continued; for instance the collaboration and cooperation in developing and delivering education in forms, better described as thematic networks.
So the Swedish Net University (NU) was founded in March 2002. The aim of NU is to widen the distance education market in Sweden. This is being done through two main lines of activities. One is the provision of a portal for all courses which are delivered over the Internet by any Swedish institution of higher education. The other line of activities is the support of development of methods within distance education. Extra funds have been given to the institutions according to their contribution of courses to the NU. The annual budget of the NU amounts to about € 3.9 million per year (2004).
In order to support the NU project, the Swedish Net University Agency was also set up. The primary task of the agency was to co-ordinate the different courses given by various Swedish universities and for that purpose run a web site exposing the courses. The agency also supported improvements in skills and competence among distance education teachers and other personnel and identified topics and areas that would benefit from more distance education.
Since 2006, the Swedish Net University Agency has been known as the Swedish Agency for Networks and Cooperation in Higher Education (NSHU). So the Swedish Net University and its student portal have remained, but the Agency now has two additional main tasks – educational development and widening participation. Moreover, they are to promote the new structure of Swedish higher education and degrees (Bologna Process), as well as the collaboration between Swedish universities and university colleges and, together with them, support further development.
In 2008, the Swedish Government decided to give NSHU notice of closure. So the agency was shut down at the end of year 2008. However, the closure did not concern the Swedish Net University. Today, all IT-supported distance education is available at studera.nu instead. In five years, the number of distance students has also increased from 55,000 students in 2003 to almost 80,000 students in 2005. Additionally, the number of completely web-based courses and programs has increased from about 30 % in 2003 to as much as 54 % in 2007.
Lund University
With eight faculties and many research centers and specialized schools, Lund University is the largest institution for research and higher education in Sweden. The university was founded in 1666, and today, it is an international centre for research and education for about 38,000 students and more than 5,300 staff members. The Lund University is respected as one of the best universities in Sweden. It is mainly located in the city of Lund, but there are also three additional campuses in the reagion.
Lund University has around 1,500 courses and 170 educational programs. One can study:
- Master Programs,
- Undergraduate and Post Graduate Courses,
- PhD Studies,
- Commissioned and Executive Education
at the university. Additionally, several online courses and distance education are offered both on Bachelor's level and on Master's level.
Sekretariatet för fortbildning, vidareutbildning och distansutbildning (FoV) is responsible for the organization and support at Lunds nätuniversitet. Faculties and institutes, in turn, are resbonsible for the actual teaching (courses and examinations). Cooperation with the Library, PR & Communications Office, IT Services, Student Services and the Teaching and Learning Development Unit.
Studying at a distance at "Lunds nätuniversitet" means in practice more flexibility and more responsibility. Most courses are delivered through virtual study environments, but exams can accomplished through the use of both virtual and physical (blended) resources. Support and guidance are also offered to students in many different ways.
References
- Holmberg Carl (2003)
- On the Move Towards Online Education in Sweden. NKI Förlaget – Online Education and Learning Management Systems by Morten Flate Paulsen.
- Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (2007)
- Education at a Glance – OECD Briefing Note for Sweden.
- Swedish Agency for Networks and Cooperation in Higher Education (2006)
- This is NSHU – our task and mission. A presentation of the Swedish Agency for Networks and Cooperation in Higher Education.
- Swedish National Agency for Higher Education (2006)
- OECD Thematic Review of Tertiary Education – Country Background Report for Sweden.
- Swedish National Agency for Higher Education (2008)
- E-learning quality. Aspects and criteria for evaluation of e-learning in higher education.
- Swedish National Agency for Higher Education (2008)
- The Swedish Higher Education System
Relevant websites
- Lund University
- MegaTrends in E-Learning Provision
- Nationellt Centrum för Flexibelt Lärande
- Study in Sweden
- Swedish Agency for Networks and Cooperation in Higher Education
- Swedish Net University
- The UNIVe Project
- Wikipedia