Latvia

Latvia

Latvia, officially the Republic of Latvia is a country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. It is bordered to the north by Estonia, to the south by Lithuania, and to the east both by Belarus and the Russian Federation . Across the Baltic Sea to the west lies Sweden. The territory of Latvia covers 64,589 km² and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate.

The Latvians are a Baltic people closely related to the Lithuanians, with the Latvian language sharing many similarities to Lithuanian. Today the Latvians and Lithuanians are the only surviving members of the Baltic peoples and Baltic languages of the Indo-European family. The modern name of Latvia is thought to originate from the ancient Latvian name Latvji, which may have originated from the word Latve which is a name of the river that presumably flowed through what is now eastern Latvia.

Latvia is a democratic parliamentary republic and is divided into 26 districts. The capital and largest city is Riga. Latvia has been a member of the United Nations since 17 September 1991, of the European Union since 1 May 2004 and of NATO since 29 March 2004.

Latvian education system

After completion of compulsory basic education (9 years) four types of programmes are offered at general secondary education (vispārējā vidējā izglītība) (grades 10-12): a general one or others emphasizing liberal arts and social sciences; or mathematics, natural sciences and technical subjects; or vocational subjects. Latvian language and literature, first foreign language, second foreign language (minority language in minority schools), mathematics, history, physical education, basics of economics and ICT are compulsory in all programmes. Each type of programmes has its own set of compulsory and optional subjects.

School year lasts 36 weeks (except examination periods) - from the beginning of September till the end of May. The total number of study hours in 3 years of general secon¬dary education may vary from 3150 to 3780 (i.e. 30-36 per week) depending on the programme and individual choice of subjects.

To be awarded a certificate of general secondary education (atestāts par vispārējo vidējo izglītību) candidates sit examinations in at least five subjects and pass/fail tests in up to four other subjects. Examinations are taken in: Latvian language, a compulsory subject of the particular programme, a subject chosen by school and two subjects chosen by the candidate. Leavers of 4-year vocational secondary education (profesionālā vidējā izglītība) have to pass a qualification examination and 4 centralised compulsory examinations (the same as after general secondary education) in order to receive a diploma on vocational secondary education. Centralized school-leaving examinations serve as a basis for the admission to higher education.

Higher education

Access to higher (tertiary) education (HE). All holders of general secondary education certificates and diplomas on vocational secondary education meet the general admission requirements. However, the universities are free to set specific requirements, e.g. to choose which subjects have to been taken at school level to qualify for admission to a particular programme.

Bakalaurs (bachelor) and maģistrs (master) degrees are awarded both in academic and professional HE. Both types of bachelors are eligible for studies in master programmes and both types of masters (including holders of degrees in medicine and dentistry – 6 and 5 years respectively) – in doctoral programmes.

Academic higher education follows academic education standard and is aimed at preparing graduates for research and providing theoretical background for professional activities.

Bakalaurs degree in a branch of science is awarded after the first cycle of academic studies. Bachelor programmes comprise 120 – 160 credit points (180-240 ECTS) or 4-6 semesters of full-time studies. They include: compulsory part ≥50 CP (75 ECTS), optional part ≥20 CP (30 ECTS), thesis ≥10 CP (15 ECTS) and some subjects of free choice to earn the rest of necessary CP.

Maģistrs degree in a branch of science is awarded after the second cycle of academic studies comprising 80 (120 ECTS) credits, out of those thesis results in ≥20 CP, compulsory part includes theoretical aspects of the field (≥ 30 CP) and their practical application in solving actual problems (≥15 CP).

According to Standards of first and second level professional higher education, its aim is to provide in-depth knowledge in a field, enabling graduates to design and improve systems, products and technologies as well as to prepare graduates for creative, research and teaching activities in this field.

Professional bakalaurs programmes are designed to ensure professional competence, they comprise at least 160 CP (240 ECTS), out of those: general courses (≥15 CP), theoretical courses of the field (≥36 CP), specialization courses (≥60 CP), optional courses (≥6 CP), practical placement (≥26 CP), and state examinations including thesis (≥12 CP).

Professional HE programmes leading to maģistrs degree comprise no less than 40 CP (60 ECTS), out of those: up-to-date achievements in the field – in theory and in practice (≥7 CP), practical placements (≥6 CP), state examinations including thesis (≥20 CP) as well as research training, courses of design, management, psychology etc.

Apart from the programmes leading to bakalaurs and maģistrs degrees, there are other types of professional higher education programmes.

First-level professional HE (college) programmes comprise 80-120 CP (120-180 ECTS) and lead to a CEDUC 4th level professional qualification. These programmes are targeted mainly at labour market. Yet, the graduates of the first-level programmes can continue their studies in second-level professional programmes.

Second-level professional HE programmes lead to a CEDUC 5th level professional qualification. Such programmes can comprise either at least 40 CP (60 ECTS) for holders of bakalaurs degrees or at least 160 CP (240 ECTS) for secondary school leavers. In both cases programmes should include a practical placement of at least 26 CP (39 ECTS) and graduation examinations including thesis (≥10 CP). Graduates of programmes including the 70 CP (105 ECTS) compulsory part of the bakalaurs programme, have access to master studies.

Doctoral studies. From January 1, 2000 onwards a single type of doctoral degree Doktors is being awarded in Latvia. Maģistrs degree (or the equivalent) is required for admission to doctoral studies. Doktors degree can be achieved at public defence of a doctoral thesis which may be a result of three to four years of full-time doctoral studies at a university or an equivalent amount of independent research while working at a university, research institution etc.

Latvian Council of Science appoints promotion councils and sets the procedures for awarding doctoral degrees.

Credit point system. Latvian credit point is defined as a one-week full-time study workload. An average workload of a full-time study year in most HE programmes is 40 CP. Latvian credit point system is compatible with ECTS. The number of ECTS credits is found by multiplying the number of Latvian credit points by a factor of 1.5.

Quality assurance. According to Latvian legislation, state-recognized degrees/diplomas may be awarded upon completion of an accredited programme in an accredited HE institution holding a state-approved Satversme (by-law). Quality assessment includes self-evaluation report by the higher education institution and peer evaluation. Evaluation teams consist of at least three experts, with only one from Latvia. In most cases the other two experts are selected from Western Europe or from the Baltic States. Decisions on programme accreditation are taken by the Accreditation Board, while those on institutional accreditation – by the Higher Education Council. The first accreditation cycle was completed in 2001. Recurrent assessments have to take place once every six years.

State – recognized HE institutions in Latvia

Universities: •University of Latvia; •Rīga Technical University ; •Latvia University of Agriculture; •Daugavpils University; •Rīga Stradiņa University.

State higher education institutions: • Latvian Academy of Arts; • Latvia Academy of Culture; • Latvian Academy of Music; • Liepāja Pedagogical Academy, • Latvian Academy of Sports Education; • Police Academy of Latvia. • Banking Institution of Higher Education; • Latvian Maritime Academy; • Latvian National Academy of Defence; • Rēzekne Higher Education Institution; • Rīga Graduate School of Law; • Rīga Higher School of Pedagogics and School Management; • Stockholm School of Economics in Rīga; • The Ventspils College; • Vidzeme College of Higher Education. Private higher education institutions • Baltic Russian Institute; • Business Institute RIMPAK Livonia; • School of Business Administration Turība; • Higher School of Economics and Culture; • Higher School of Psychology; • Higher School of Social Work and Social Pedagogy “Attīstība”; • Information Systems Institute; • Institute of Social Technologies; • International Institute of Practical Psychology; • Latvian Christian Academy; • Rīga Aeronautical Institute; • Rīga International School of Economics and Business Administration; • Transport and Telecommunication Institute State colleges: • RRC College; • Rīga civil Engineering college • Jēkabpils Agribusiness college; • Latvian Culture College; • Liepāja Maritime College; • Olaine College of Mechanics and technology; • Rīga Civil Engineering College; • Rīga Technical College; • Rīga Entrepreneurship College; • Fire Protection and Civic Defence College; • State Boarder Guards’ College Private colleges: 3 • Alberta college; • College of Accounting and Finance; • Laws College; • Business and Administration College.

More information on education system http://www.izm.lv http://www.aic.lv www.eurydice.org

      on status of programmes/institutions: 	http://www.aiknc.lv

Universities, which are academic or artistic institutions, focus on scientific research and research-based education. They confer Bachelor’s, Master’s, Licentiate and Doctoral degrees. At the moment (June 2008), Finland has 20 universities and a National College for Defense, which work on the principles of academic freedom and autonomy. They are very independent in their decision-making. All universities are state-run, the government providing some 70 % of their budgets.

At universities, students can study for lower (Bachelor's) and higher (Master's) degrees and scientific or artistic postgraduate degrees, which are the licentiate and the doctorate. It is also possible to study specialist postgraduate degrees in the medical fields. In the two-cycle degree system, students first complete the Bachelor's degree, after which they may go for the higher, Master's degree. As a rule, students are admitted to study for the higher degree. Universities also arrange separate Master's programs with separate student selection, to which the entry requirement is a Bachelor's level degree or corresponding studies.

Studies are quantified as credits (ECTS). One year of full-time study corresponds to 60 credits. The extent of the Bachelor's level degree is 180 credits, and it is aimed to take some three years. The Master's degree is 120 credits, which means two years of full-time study on top of the lower degree. In some fields, such as medicine, the degrees are more extensive and take longer to complete.

University postgraduate education aims at a doctoral degree. In addition to the required studies, doctoral students prepare a dissertation, which they defend in public. The requirement for postgraduate studies is a Master's or corresponding degree. Universities also offer fee-charging continuing education and Open University instruction, which do not lead to qualifications but can be included in an undergraduate or postgraduate degree.

Universities select their students independently and entrance examinations are an important part of the selection process. An admitted student may only accept one student place in degree education in a given academic year. The aim is to simplify student selection procedures by means of a joint universities application system to be introduced in the academic year 2008 – 2009.

At the moment (June 2008), there are 10 multi-faculty universities, 6 specialized universities, 4 art academies and a National College for Defense in Finland. Annually (2006), some 20,000 new students attend university education, whereas the total number of students is some 160 000. The number of Master’s degrees completed at universities during 2006 totaled 13,100. The number of doctorates, in turn, amounted to 1,410. The average drop-out rate (2005) is only about 5.0 %.

Grading system. The state standards for higher education set the following ten-point marking system:

Achievement level Grade Meaning Approx. ECTS grade

very high 10 izcili (with distinction) A very high 9 teicami (excellent) A high 8 ļoti labi (very good) B high 7 labi (good) C medium 6 gandrīz labi (almost good) D medium 5 viduvēji (satisfactory) E medium 4 gandrīz viduvēji (almost satisfactory) E/FX low 3–1 negatīvs vērtējums (unsatisfactory) Fail

Polytechnics in Finland

The first polytechnics were set up on an experimental basis in 1991, the aims being to raise the standard of higher vocational education, to make Finland’s training and qualifications more internationally competitive, to respond to the demands for new skills, to enhance the attraction of vocational education and to increase the efficiency of vocational education system. The reform was launched on the basis of guidelines issued by the government, and responsibility for bringing courses up to non-university higher education standard was entrusted to the institutions taking part in the experiment.

The first permanent polytechnics started operating in 1996 after a thorough evaluation process. In 2003, the polytechnics were given the same autonomy as universities. Till then, they had operated under the supervision of the Ministry of Education. The higher polytechnic degree was established in 2005 after a 5-year experiment. Additionally, the polytechnic reform entailed a total reorganization of other vocational education, the post-secondary college level being completely phased out, the post-comprehensive level being expanded, and the apprenticeship training gradually being increased.

Polytechnics, also known as universities of applied sciences, offer work-related education in response to labor market needs. Degree studies give a higher education qualification and practical professional skills. They comprise core and professional studies, elective studies and a final project. All degree studies include practical on-the-job learning. There are no tuition fees in degree education, and the students can apply for financial aid.

At the moment (June 2008), there are 28 polytechnics in the Ministry of Education sector: seven are run by local authorities, 11 by municipal education consortia and 10 by private organizations. In addition, there is the Åland University of Applied Sciences in the self-governing Province of Åland and the Police College subordinate to the Ministry of Interior. The polytechnics are co-financed by the government and local authorities.

The extent of polytechnic degree studies is generally 210 − 240 study points (ECTS), which means 3.5 – 4 years of full-time study. This education is arranged as degree programs. The entry requirement is a certificate from an upper secondary school or the matriculation certificate, a vocational qualification or corresponding foreign studies. The requirement for Master's studies in polytechnics is a Bachelors' level polytechnic degree and at least three years of work experience. The polytechnic Master's, which is 60 – 90 study points and takes 1.5 – 2 years, is equivalent to a university Master's in the labor market.

A total of 133,300 students attended polytechnic education leading to a degree in 2007. This was 700 students more than the year before. The number of new students was 36,600. In addition, a total of 21,000 degrees were obtained. The number of foreign students attending education leading to a degree was 5,400, 17 % more than the year before. In 2007, the number of degrees obtained by foreign students increased by 11 % from previous year and stood slightly over 500. The number of students attending education leading to a higher polytechnic degree was 3,400, which was 1,300 students more than the year before. Higher polytechnic degrees were obtained by 360 students.

Higher education reform

The Bologna Process

The Finnish higher education reform derives from the Bologna Declaration. In order to strengthen the position of Finnish universities in the European Higher Education Area, Finland has reformed the degree structure and is currently devising an international strategy for the Finnish higher education system. Another important means has been the strengthening of quality assurance in Finnish universities and polytechnics. The new two-cycle degree system was adopted by Finnish universities in August 2005, whereas polytechnics have kept the present system. The degrees were reformed compatible with the ECTS at the same time.

In Finland, universities and polytechnics have adopted the Diploma Supplement. It is a document jointly designed by the EU, the Council of Europe and UNESCO to provide information about the studies completed by the student, the status of the degree and the qualification provided by the degree for further studies and for jobs. The universities and polytechnics have a statutory duty to issue a Diploma Supplement to the student on request.

Structural development

The Finnish higher education system consists of two complementary sectors, where universities and polytechnics have different missions and profiles (dual model). Universities focus on scientific research and research-based education, whereas polytechnics offer work-related education in response to the labor market needs. The Finnish higher education system is currently undergoing a structural development process, which is meant to be completed by 2012. According to the Ministry of Education, the aims of structural development can be listed as following (Ministry of Education. 2008a):

• The quality of teaching and research improves.
• The impressiveness of education and research strengthens.
• The internationalization proceeds.
• The level of know-how arises and the competitiveness strengthens.
• The strengths of higher education are pulled together.
• The co-operational structures and administration evolve.
• The public research system functions better.
• The alternatives in individual education diversify.
• Services for students and researchers improve.

Additionally, the Ministry of Education has given recommendations and guidelines for the goals of structural development in Finnish higher education institutions.

Table I: HEIs' key figures in 2006 and vision 2020

	Polytechnics (2006)	Polytechnics (2020)	Universities (2006)	Universities (2020)
Number of institutions	29	max. 18	20	max. 15
Students (FTE)	105,000	95,000	120,000	105,000
Students (FTE) / teachers (%)	17.8	16.0	14.3	12.5
Basic degree / teachers (%)	3.5	3.7	1.6	1.9
Passing percentage (%)	70.3	76.0	55.4	70.0
Graduate employment and continuation to postgraduate studies (%)	88.7	90.8	88.8	91.0
Doctorate degrees / professor (%)	-	-	0.6	0.8
Scientific publications / teaching and research staff (%)	-	-	1.7	2.2

Structural development in universities

In years 2006 – 2007, the Ministry of Education allocated some 18 M€ for the structural development of universities. In addition, three leading projects were launched in November 2006: The Aalto University, The University of Eastern Finland and the University Consortium in Turku. The reform will transform universities’ legal status from entities under the State Budget to an independent body corporate. This allows increased autonomy in university finances and administration.

The Aalto University is a new university, which will be created through a full merger of three existing universities: Helsinki School of Economics, Helsinki University of Technology and University of Art and Design Helsinki. The University of Eastern Finland is a new university built from two current universities in Eastern Finland: University of Joensuu and University of Kuopio. University of Turku and Turku School of Economics, in turn, make the University Consortium in Turku, which is then supposed to build up a new kind of university 3 years later.

In addition to the aforementioned projects, universities are supported in their collaborative projects and in collaboration with the polytechnics and other parties. Some internal development projects are also supported. The structural development in universities has not only been ministry-led, but the universities have also taken an active role in the processes.

Table II: Consequences of the structural development in Finnish universities

Nr	The new university / consortium	Consists of	Starts on
1.	Aalto University	(1) Helsinki School of Economics, (2) Helsinki University of Technology and (3) University of Art and Design Helsinki	August 1st, 2009
2.	University of Eastern Finland	(1) University of Joensuu and (2) Univeristy of Kuopio	January 1st, 2010
3.	University Consortium in Turku (new kind of university to be established in 2011)	(1) University of Turku and (2) Turku School of Economics	August 1st, 2008

Structural development in polytechnics

The most significant development projects amongst the polytechnics have been the three merger projects. At the beginning of year 2007, HAAGA University of Applied Sciences and Helsinki Business Polytechnic merged into HAAGA-HELIA University of Applied Sciences. Helsinki Polytechnic Stadia and EVTEK University of Applied Sciences, in turn, will become the Metropolia University of Applied Sciences in August 2008, and at the same time some, branch rationalization will be made with Laurea University of Applied Sciences. Furthermore, Swedish polytechnic Finland and Sydväst Polytechnic will become the Novia University of Applied Sciences in August 2008.

It has also been agreed that degree-led education and, thus, 12 units in 11 localities will be closed down. Education programs and areas of responsibilities are united so that education will be organized in groups of no less than 40 students. Additionally, the polytechnics will develop their distribution of work and, thereby, strengthen their profilization. The aim is that some 10 % (~2,500) of new students will be redirected in years 2008 – 2009.

Table III: Consequences of the structural development in Finnish polytechnics

Nr	The new polytechnic	Consists of	Starts / started on
1.	HAAGA-HELIA University of Applied Sciences	(1) HAAGA University of Applied Sciences and (2) Helsinki Business Polytechnic	January 1st, 2007
2.	Metropolia University of Applied Sciences	(1) Helsinki Polytechnic Stadia and (2) EVTEK University of Applied Sciences	August 1st, 2008
3.	Novia University of Applied Sciences	(1) Swedish Polytechnic Finland and (2) Sydväst Polytechnic	August 1st, 2008

Administration and finance

Polytechnic education is co-financed by the government and local authorities. The local authorities pay 54.7 % of the cost of basic education, general upper secondary education, vocational education and training and polytechnic education. In addition to its 45.3 % share of statutory funding, the government grants discretionary subsidies to education and its development. As the funds are not earmarked, the education providers can use them at their discretion. In addition to this public funding, polytechnics provide fee-paying services and carry out projects, which also bring them income.

Funds granted by the Ministry of Education to universities comprise core funding, project funding and performance-based funding. The appropriations and the objectives, direction, evaluation and development of university operations are determined in performance agreements concluded by the universities and the Ministry of Education. Universities also receive a great deal of external financing, e.g. for research projects, and have income from services they provide, such as continuing professional education.

Quality assurance

Quality assurance of higher education is one of the key development areas in efforts to construct a European Higher Education Area (EHEA). In 2005, The Finnish Higher Education Evaluation Council (FINHEEC) launched a project for auditing the quality assurance systems of Finnish higher education institutions (HEIs). The purpose of auditing is to ensure that the HEIs have quality assurance systems in support of continuous and systematic improvement of operations, and that such a system works according to stated objectives, brings out change and has international credibility.

The FINHEEC audit model is founded in the principle of enhancement-led evaluation and is the universally accepted approach in Finland. The model also conforms to the ENQA Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Higher Education Area.

Finnish HEIs in the information society

Towards the information society

The nineteen eighties and nineties saw the breakthrough of the use of information technology in a wide spectrum. During that period, the critical amount of users was created inside the world of HE, first in communities of researchers, and then, as a natural continuum also in the researcher education. The birth of CSC and Funet helped Finnish HE to achieve an internationally high level in exploiting information technologies. The rapid expansion of the networks of HEIs allowed the massive access of students into the lateral communication of the community of students.

This, however, had little or no impact on the teaching of the institutions, except in some fields of natural sciences, medicine and technical sciences, while in the national strategic guidelines for primary and secondary education, including vocational education, the use of ICT in teaching and the systematic improvement of the ICT skills of teachers became a stated goal already in the nineties. For HEIs, it had to be waited that the overall discussion on pedagogy reached the point where it started to evolve into systematic forms. In Finland as elsewhere, the autonomy and decision making of HEIs have not been instrumental in implementing the national strategy in use of ICT in learning.

In the HEIs in Finland, the introduction of ICT in teaching stemmed largely from a different tradition than in schools and vocational education institutions, where the first wave of interest towards the possibilities of IT in teaching and the later hyper- and multimedia hype were huge. These waves matched well with the emerging conceptions about learning, and the subsequent modern methods which emphasized the student’s independent work exploratory and collaborative learning and process orientation.

In HEIs, two mainstreams emerged: on the one hand the culture of high-powered computation done in centralized supercomputer environments coupled with computer science, information technology and electronic data processing of the administration, and on the other hand the reflection of the development of different forms of distant teaching into the world of higher education. In this second mainstream, continuing education centers and open universities have played an important role.

Information society strategy period

Development of information society did not become an issue in Finland before the implementation of the first information society strategy in 1995 – 1999. In the HE sector, the focus was on improving the computer facilities, networks, library applications and applications serving the information and communication needs of researchers. Internet, net communications and learning platforms, net courses, digital materials and learning object repositories had their breakthrough on the period of the first information society strategy actually without significant direction from the strategy. The development of the field was so fast that the strategy work was falling behind, which was quite natural particularly at that time. Strategy work served decision-making and the mainstream of education, not the forerunners.

At the same time, an interesting convergence of several separate small traditions into a wide and diverse mainstream took place due to the fact that use of ICT in teaching was becoming more widespread. On one side, the experts of ICT in classroom teaching (computer-aided learning) noticed how the Internet was starting to make classrooms virtual. On another side, the education technologists of distant teaching and learning started noticing that network pedagogy offers possibilities beyond electronic distribution of teaching materials, returning assignments through the net or using video conferencing and telephone in communication. Many who had been awakened by the Internet found the research and development done by the forerunners. The virtual, often informal networks of experts and learning started to evolve into genuine flora of lifelong learning, the most famous of course being the worldwide network of Linux users.

The information strategy for education and research 2000 – 2004 grasped four important challenges for developing information society: 1) ensuring necessary skills for information society; 2) developing network learning environments; 3) securing the structures of information society; and 4) developing digital learning resources. For tackling the challenges belonging to the third group at HEI level, the Finnish Virtual University (FVU) and the Finnish Online University of Applied Sciences (VirtuaaliAMK), formerly known as the Finnish Virtual Polytechnic (FVP), were developed as a unifying concept.

Until the end of year 2006, the guiding document for the FVU and VirtuaaliAMK activities and related projects and networks was the Information Society Program for Education, Training and Research 2004 – 2006. The foci were set on establishing productive and economically viable practices and on encouraging exploitation of ICT in social innovations. The purpose for consolidating the virtual university was that projects and services initially operating on national funding were eventually to be transferred to the respective universities.

For more information see: Major e-learning initiatives in Finland.

References

• The Finnish Higher Education Evaluation Council (2006)

Audits of Quality Assurance Systems of Finnish Higher Education Institutions – Audit Manual for 2005-2007. Publications of The Finnish Higher Education Evaluation Council 4:2006.

• Heinonen, O-P. (1997)

Finland: Restructuring Higher Education. Prospects, vol. XXVII, no.4, December 1997.

• Ministry of Education (2000)

Information Strategy for Education and Research 2000 – 2004. Implementation Plan.

• Ministry of Education (2007a)

Ammattikorkeakoulujen verkostohankkeet. Opetusministeriön julkaisuja 2007:1.

• Ministry of Education (2007b)

Universities 2006 – Annual Report. Ministry of Education publications 2007:19.

• Ministry of Education (2007c)

Suomen virtuaaliyliopistoverkostojen arviointi. Opetusministeriön työryhmämuistioita ja selvityksiä 2007:28.

• Ministry of Education (2008a)

Koulutus ja tutkimus 2007-2012 – kehittämissuunnitelma. Opetusministeriön julkaisuja 2008:9.

• Ministry of Education (2008b)

Korkeakoulujen rakenteellisen kehittämisen suuntaviivat vuosille 2008 – 2011.

Relevant websites

• European Commission
• The Finnish Higher Education Evaluation Council (FINHEEC)
• Finnish Ministry of Education (MINEDU)
• Statistics Finland
• Virtual Finland

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