Virtual Education Wiki - User contributions [en]

Latvia

2008-09-12T10:21:25Z

SandisZuciks: /* Latvian education system */

==Latvia==

[[Image:Latvia-map.gif|right|400px]]
Latvia, officially the Republic of Latvia is a country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. It is bordered to the north by Estonia, to the south by Lithuania, and to the east both by Belarus and the Russian Federation . Across the Baltic Sea to the west lies Sweden. The territory of Latvia covers 64,589 km² and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate.

The Latvians are a Baltic people closely related to the Lithuanians, with the Latvian language sharing many similarities to Lithuanian. Today the Latvians and Lithuanians are the only surviving members of the Baltic peoples and Baltic languages of the Indo-European family. The modern name of Latvia is thought to originate from the ancient Latvian name Latvji, which may have originated from the word Latve which is a name of the river that presumably flowed through what is now eastern Latvia.
Latvia is a democratic parliamentary republic and is divided into 26 districts. The capital and largest city is Riga. Latvia has been a member of the United Nations since 17 September 1991, of the European Union since 1 May 2004 and of NATO since 29 March 2004.

==Latvian education policy==
Every citizen of the Republic of Latvia and every person who has the right to a non-citizen passport issued by the Republic of Latvia, every person who has received a permanent residence permit, as well as citizens of European Union memberstates who have been issued a temporary residence permit, and their children, have equal right to acquire education, regardless of their property or social status, race, nationality, gender, religious or political convictions, state of health, occupation or place of residence.

==Governance of the Education System==

Education system is administered at three levels - national, municipal and institutional. The Parliament (Saeima), the Cabinet of Ministers and the Ministry of Education and Science are the main decision-making bodies at a national level. The Ministry of Education and Science is the education policy-making institution that also issues the licenses for opening comprehensive education institutions and sets educational standards along with the teacher training content and procedures.

==Latvian education system==
[[Image:Izglshema-eng.jpg|right|400px]]

The components of the educational system are pre-school education(pirmsskolas izglitiba), 9-year basic education (pamatizglitiba), upper secondary education (videja izglitiba) and higher education (augstaka izglitiba).

Pre-school education (ISCED 0) is for children aged 5-7 years and is provided by general education establishments or kindergartens as part of compulsory 11 basic education. The objective is to foster general development of children and their readiness to enter the primary stage of basic education.

Basic education (ISCED 1 and 2) comprises primary and lower secondary education and lasts for 9 years. It is compulsory for all children aged 7 and above. The National Basic Education Standard (Valsts pamatizglitibas standarts) determines the curriculum and the content of national examinations. Those who do not complete basic education by 16 should, according to Law, continue studying to complete the programme by the time they are 18. They can also choose VET programmes that allow them to obtain a first or second level professional qualification and to complete the obligatory basic educational programme.

3-year vocational basic education programmes are provided in vocational schools for students without a certificate of basic education (after completion of at least 7 grades of basic education, but they must be at least 15 years old). Upper secondary education (ISCED 3) comprises two types of programme: general secondary (vispareja videja izglitiba) and vocational secondary (profesionala videja izglitiba). In general secondary, there are 4 study fields: general; humanities and social sciences; mathematics, natural science and technical, and vocational (arts, music, business, and sports). The following subjects are obligatory for all programmes: Latvian; first foreign language; second foreign language (in minority population schools - the minority language); mathematics, history; sports; business foundations and computer science. Every programme includes obligatory and optional subjects relevant to the particular field of studies. To receive the Certificate of the secondary education (Atestats par visparejo videjo izglitibu), students should take not less than 5 examinations in compulsory or optional study subjects and no more than 4 tests in compulsory study subjects.

Provision is regulated by the state which determines its level, form and target groups. It also defines the strategic goals and main tasks of each programme; its obligatory content, basic principles and assessment.

Different vocational education programmes are developed and offered for all economic branches. The National Standard of vocational education (Valsts profesionalas izglitibas standarts) and the Occupational Standards (Profesiju standarti) determine the curriculum and content of vocational education programmes.

4-year vocational secondary education programmes are offered to students who have successfully completed compulsory basic education. Graduates receive a diploma of vocational secondary education and a Level 3 vocational qualification.

2-3 year vocational education programmes lead to a Certificate of secondary education and qualification level 3.

Post secondary non-tertiary vocational education (ISCED 4) can be followed after graduating from general secondary schools. They are focused towards mastering purely professional skills and knowledge.

Tertiary education (ISCED 5). While there is a difference between academic and vocational higher education, it is not institutionalised. Universities and other higher education institutions run both academic and vocational programmes.
http://www.aic.lv/refernet/doc/Thematic%20Overview_2007.pdf
Thematic Overview_2007.pdf (application/pdf Object)
Academic higher education programmes (ISCED 5A) lead to a Bachelor’s degree (Bakalaurs) and Master’s degree (Magistrs). The duration of Bachelor’s programmes may be 3 or 4 years. A Master’s degree is awarded after the second stage of academic education and requires at least 5 years of university studies.

The Law of Higher Education Institutions (Augstakas izglitibas likums) and the Law of Vocational Education (Profesionalas izglitibas likums) stipulate a 2-level vocational higher education – the first level (2-3 years) leading to professional qualification Level 4 (ISCED 5B) and second level (ISCED 5B) leading to qualification level 5 (4-6 years). Having completed a programme, students are awarded with a professional qualification or a vocational Bachelor’s degree that can be followed by a further 1-2 years of vocational Master’s studies. The Master’s degree of higher vocational education is awarded if the total duration of studies is at least 5 years.

There can also be short second level vocational higher education study programmes (1-2 years), where the qualification is obtained on the basis of the previously acquired first level vocational higher education or academic Bachelor’s degree. In total the duration of professional qualification Level 5 study programmes is not less than 4 years after secondary education and not less than 2 years after college education.

Bachelor and Master degrees exist both in academic and vocational higher education. Bachelors of both categories have the right to enrol in master’s studies, masters of both categories (including also degrees in medicine and dentistry - 6 and 5 years of study respectively) - in doctoral studies.

Postgraduate education (ISCED level 6). A Master’s degree or the equivalent is required for admission to doctoral studies (Ph.D.) which last 3-4 full-time years. They include advanced studies of the subject in a relevant study programme (or an equivalent amount of independent research while working at a university, research institution, etc.) and a scientific research towards doctoral thesis.

==Higher education==

Access to higher (tertiary) education (HE). All holders of general secondary education certificates and diplomas on vocational secondary education meet the general admission requirements. However, the universities are free to set specific requirements, e.g. to choose which subjects have to been taken at school level to qualify for admission to a particular programme.

Bakalaurs (bachelor) and maģistrs (master) degrees are awarded both in academic and professional HE. Both types of bachelors are eligible for studies in master programmes and both types of masters (including holders of degrees in medicine and dentistry – 6 and 5 years respectively) – in doctoral programmes.

Academic higher education follows academic education standard and is aimed at preparing graduates for research and providing theoretical background for professional activities.

Bakalaurs degree in a branch of science is awarded after the first cycle of academic studies. Bachelor programmes comprise 120 – 160 credit points (180-240 ECTS) or 4-6 semesters of full-time studies. They include: compulsory part ≥50 CP (75 ECTS), optional part ≥20 CP (30 ECTS), thesis ≥10 CP (15 ECTS) and some subjects of free choice to earn the rest of necessary CP.

Maģistrs degree in a branch of science is awarded after the second cycle of academic studies comprising 80 (120 ECTS) credits, out of those thesis results in ≥20 CP, compulsory part includes theoretical aspects of the field (≥ 30 CP) and their practical application in solving actual problems (≥15 CP).

According to Standards of first and second level professional higher education, its aim is to provide in-depth knowledge in a field, enabling graduates to design and improve systems, products and technologies as well as to prepare graduates for creative, research and teaching activities in this field.

Professional bakalaurs programmes are designed to ensure professional competence, they comprise at least 160 CP (240 ECTS), out of those: general courses (≥15 CP), theoretical courses of the field (≥36 CP), specialization courses (≥60 CP), optional courses (≥6 CP), practical placement (≥26 CP), and state examinations including thesis (≥12 CP).

Professional HE programmes leading to maģistrs degree comprise no less than 40 CP (60 ECTS), out of those: up-to-date achievements in the field – in theory and in practice (≥7 CP), practical placements (≥6 CP), state examinations including thesis (≥20 CP) as well as research training, courses of design, management, psychology etc.

Apart from the programmes leading to bakalaurs and maģistrs degrees, there are other types of professional higher education programmes.

First-level professional HE (college) programmes comprise 80-120 CP (120-180 ECTS) and lead to a CEDUC 4th level professional qualification. These programmes are targeted mainly at labour market. Yet, the graduates of the first-level programmes can continue their studies in second-level professional programmes.

Second-level professional HE programmes lead to a CEDUC 5th level professional qualification. Such programmes can comprise either at least 40 CP (60 ECTS) for holders of bakalaurs degrees or at least 160 CP (240 ECTS) for secondary school leavers. In both cases programmes should include a practical placement of at least 26 CP (39 ECTS) and graduation examinations including thesis (≥10 CP). Graduates of programmes including the 70 CP (105 ECTS) compulsory part of the bakalaurs programme, have access to master studies.

Doctoral studies. From January 1, 2000 onwards a single type of doctoral degree Doktors is being awarded in Latvia.
Maģistrs degree (or the equivalent) is required for admission to doctoral studies. Doktors degree can be achieved at public defence of a doctoral thesis which may be a result of three to four years of full-time doctoral studies at a university or an equivalent amount of independent research while working at a university, research institution etc.

Latvian Council of Science appoints promotion councils and sets the procedures for awarding doctoral degrees.

Credit point system. Latvian credit point is defined as a one-week full-time study workload. An average workload of a full-time study year in most HE programmes is 40 CP. Latvian credit point system is compatible with ECTS. The number of ECTS credits is found by multiplying the number of Latvian credit points by a factor of 1.5.

Grading system. The state standards for higher education set the following ten-point marking system:

Achievement level Grade Meaning Approx. ECTS grade

very high 10 izcili (with distinction) A
very high 9 teicami (excellent) A
high 8 ļoti labi (very good) B
high 7 labi (good) C
medium 6 gandrīz labi (almost good) D
medium 5 viduvēji (satisfactory) E
medium 4 gandrīz viduvēji (almost satisfactory) E/FX
low 3–1 negatīvs vērtējums (unsatisfactory) Fail

Quality assurance. According to Latvian legislation, state-recognized degrees/diplomas may be awarded upon completion of an accredited programme in an accredited HE institution holding a state-approved Satversme (by-law). Quality assessment includes self-evaluation report by the higher education institution and peer evaluation. Evaluation teams consist of at least three experts, with only one from Latvia. In most cases the other two experts are selected from Western Europe or from the Baltic States. Decisions on programme accreditation are taken by the Accreditation Board, while those on institutional accreditation – by the Higher Education Council. The first accreditation cycle was completed in 2001. Recurrent assessments have to take place once every six years.

===State – recognized higher education institutions in Latvia===

Universities:
•University of Latvia;
•Rīga Technical University ;
•Latvia University of Agriculture;
•Daugavpils University;
•Rīga Stradiņa University.

State higher education institutions:
• Latvian Academy of Arts;
• Latvia Academy of Culture;
• Latvian Academy of Music;
• Liepāja Pedagogical Academy,
• Latvian Academy of Sports Education;
• Police Academy of Latvia.
• Banking Institution of Higher Education;
• Latvian Maritime Academy;
• Latvian National Academy of Defence;
• Rēzekne Higher Education Institution;
• Rīga Graduate School of Law;
• Rīga Higher School of Pedagogics and School Management;
• Stockholm School of Economics in Rīga;
• The Ventspils College;
• Vidzeme College of Higher Education.

Private higher education institutions
• Baltic Russian Institute;
• Business Institute RIMPAK Livonia;
• School of Business Administration Turība;
• Higher School of Economics and Culture;
• Higher School of Psychology;
• Higher School of Social Work and Social Pedagogy “Attīstība”;
• Information Systems Institute;
• Institute of Social Technologies;
• International Institute of Practical Psychology;
• Latvian Christian Academy;
• Rīga Aeronautical Institute;
• Rīga International School of Economics and Business Administration;
• Transport and Telecommunication Institute

State colleges:
• RRC College;
• Rīga civil Engineering college
• Jēkabpils Agribusiness college;
• Latvian Culture College;
• Liepāja Maritime College;
• Olaine College of Mechanics and technology;
• Rīga Civil Engineering College;
• Rīga Technical College;
• Rīga Entrepreneurship College;
• Fire Protection and Civic Defence College;
• State Boarder Guards’ College
Private colleges: 3
• Alberta college;
• College of Accounting and Finance;
• Laws College;
• Business and Administration College.

More information
on education system http://www.izm.lv
http://www.aic.lv
www.eurydice.org

==Tuition fee in education system==

The tuition at pre-school, basic and secondary education in a state or municipality founded educational establishments is funded from the national or municipal budget. Private educational institutions may set a tuition fee for providing education. In higher education programmes the state covers tuition fees for a certain number of students’ places, according to the State Procurement in the respective academic year. Each higher education institution may set a tuition fee for the rest of students’ places. All students are entitled to a state credit for their studies in any higher education programme.
Foreigners or non-citizens pay for their education in accordance with the agreement concluded with the respective educational establishment. In cases when foreign citizens study in Latvia under an exchange programme and an equivalent number of Latvian students study abroad, the foreigners' studies in Latvia are financed from the budget resources of the Republic of Latvia allocated to the respective institution of higher education. The tuition fee for the citizens of European Union countries shall be determined and covered according to the same procedure as for the citizens and permanent residents of the Republic of Latvia.

==Strategic guidelines for the development of education for years 2007 - 2013 ==

Totally 57 millions Lats have been provided for the implementation of the strategic guidelines for the development of education of the Ministry of Education and Science. The following tasks are defined in the above strategic guidelines (listed in the sequence of priority):

* To introduce and pay for the pedagogic work of a teacher’s assistant for the purpose of providing support to children (Grades 1 – 6) with learning difficulties – 7.6922 Million Lats;

* To improve the social conditions of students at vocational educational establishments by means of increasing scholarships during years 2007 – 2010 up to 20 Lats per month on average, during years 2011 – 2013 up to 40 Lats per month, the total amount for year 2007 – 4.3611 Million;

* To develop the structure model for the distribution of study programs in compliance to the needs of agriculture and to ensure its implementation in the system of higher education (encouragement of the development of Doctor’s studies – at least 200 new places for Master studies per year, at least 100 new places for Doctor’s studies per year; the number of places for studies in the fields of natural sciences, engineering sciences, medicine and environment sciences increased by at least 300 per year. Provided increase of the scholarships fund by at least 5% per year) – 20 Million Lats.

* To ensure continuous attraction of the state investment for the purpose of arrangement and modernisation of educational establishments – 16.952 Million Lats.

* etc.

==References==

Ministry of Education and Science
http://izm.izm.gov.lv/58.html
(http://izm.izm.gov.lv/nozares-politika/izglitiba.html#izglitibas_sistema)

http://www.aic.lv/portal/en/education_in_latvia.html

http://www.aic.lv/bolona/Latvija/LV_%20Bol_en.pdf

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> [[Countries]]

[[Category:Europe]]
[[Category:European Union]]

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Brazil

2008-09-03T12:46:17Z

SandisZuciks: /* Table 1. Institutions of Higher Education in Brazil in 2004 */

==Brazil in nutshell==

[[Image:Brazil-map.gif|left|400mp]]
Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is a country in South America. It is the fifth largest country by geographical area, the fifth most populous country, and the fourth most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of over 7,491 kilometers (4,655 mi). It is bordered on the north by Venezuela, Suriname, Guyana and the overseas department of French Guiana; on the northwest by Colombia; on the west by Bolivia and Peru; on the southwest by Argentina and Paraguay and on the south by Uruguay. Numerous archipelagos are part of the Brazilian territory, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz.

Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until its independence in 1822. Initially independent as the Brazilian Empire, the country has been a republic since 1889, even though its bicameral legislature (now called Congress) dates back to 1824, when the first constitution was ratified. Its current Constitution defines Brazil as a Federal Republic. The Federation is formed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities.

Brazil is the world's tenth largest economy at market exchange rates and the ninth largest in purchasing power. Economic reforms have given the country new international projection. It is a founding member of the United Nations and of the Union of South American Nations. A predominantly Roman Catholic, Portuguese-speaking and multiethnic society, Brazil is also home to a diversity of wildlife, natural environments, and extensive natural resources in a variety of protected habitats.

==Brazilian education policy==

Education in Brazil is regulated by the Federal Government, through the Ministry of Education, which defines the guiding principles for the organization of educational programs. Local governments are responsible for establishing state and city educational programsfollowing the guidelines and using the funding supplied by the Federal Government. Brazilian children must attend school a minimum of 9 years, however the schooling is usually inadequate.

The 1988 Brazilian Constitution states that "education" is "a right for all, a duty of the State and of the family, and is to be promoted with the collaboration of society, with the objective of fully developing the person, preparing the individual for the exercise of citizenship and qualifying him/her for work".

The National Educational Bases and Guidelines Law enacted in 1961 says that, "national education, inspired in the principles of freedom and in the ideals of human solidarity, has the purpose of:

*understanding individual rights and responsibilities, as well as those of citizens, the State and other community groups;
*respecting man's dignity and fundamental freedoms;
*strengthening national unity and international solidarity;
*integral development of the human personality and his/her participation in the work towards common welfare;
*preparing individuals and society to master scientific and technological resources which will allow the use existing possibilities to common welfare;
*protecting, disseminating and expanding cultural heritage;
*condemning any unequal treatment resulting from philosophical, political or religious belief, as well as any social classes or racial prejudices.

==Higher Education==
====Table 1. Institutions of Higher Education in Brazil in 2004====
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:11px;"
|-valign="top" style="background: #ECE5B6;"
!width=""|''' '''
!width=""|''' '''
!width=""|'''Universities'''
!width=""|'''University centers'''
!width=""|'''Integrated colleges '''
!width=""|'''Colleges, Schools, Institutes'''
!width=""|'''CET/FaT*'''

|-valign="top"
| '''Brazil'''|| 2013 || 169 || 107 || 119 || 1474 || 144
|-valign="top"
| '''Public'''|| 224 || 83 || 3 || 3 || 86 || 49
|-valign="top"
| Public- Federal|| 87 || 46 || 1 || - || 6 || 34
|-valign="top"
| Public- State|| 75 || 32 || - || - || 28 || 15
|-valign="top"
| Public- Municipal|| 62 || 5 || 2 || 3 || 52 || -
|-valign="top"
| '''Private''' || 1789 || 86 || 104 || 116 || 1388 || 95
|-valign="top"
| Private - Private || 1401 || 26 || 60 ||97 || 1125 || 93
|-valign="top"
| Private - Community|| 388 || 60 || 44 || 19 || 263 || 2
|}

*CET/FaT Centers for Technological Education and Collages of Technology (INEP, 2004b).

===Summary of Higher Education===

Brazil has put significant resources into developing its higher education system over the past three decades. As a result, a system has evolved in which some institutions have achieved recognizable excellence in teaching and research, while, more generally, the majority of institutions have struggled to provide relevant, quality education at reasonable cost. Looked at in isolation, certain parts of the system are sound and productive. Taken as a whole, the system still has a number of large challenges to overcome.

About 15% of the age cohort is enrolled in higher education. This is quite low compared to other countries in the region (Argentina 36%; Chile 32%; Uruguay 30%; Venezuela, R.B. 29% [World Development Indicators 2001]) and to the OECD country average of 52% (OECD, 2001). Simply doubling the number of spaces offered, however, will not double the rate of coverage, because a demographic bulge of young Brazilians is reaching university age. Over the past 15 years, growth in private provision of higher education was roughly equal to the moderate growth of the university-age cohort, but now large absolute increases in enrollments would be needed simply to maintain the current rate of coverage. In addition, graduation rates from secondary schools are rising sharply and more older, working Brazilians are seeking tertiary degrees. In short, a larger percentage of a growing number of Brazilians are demanding higher education, and the system cannot keep pace with this demand under existing conditions.

Cost per student in public institutions, roughly R$14,000 per year in the federal system, is on par with OECD country averages while quality is not. Rigidities in funding and regulation create strong disincentives for cost-efficiency or quality. Public universities have been funded on the basis of input. Federal policy toward higher education, until recently, did not attempt to control costs or correlate funding to productivity. Other legislation and regulations, outside the control or influence of MEC, created built-in cost increases that did not improve the access, quality, or relevance of the education. University rectors have traditionally concerned themselves more with obtaining resources from the federal government than with managing the resources effectively within their institutions.

With a few notable exceptions, the quality of instruction and the relevance of the curriculum are below desirable standards. Historically, the Brazilian system - like those of continental Europe - is oriented to provide professional training rather than general or interdisciplinary education. Holders of a first university degree (graduação) are licensed to practice their profession by virtue of their diplomas. Such systems have been successful, productive, and of high quality under a variety of conditions. However, in Brazil, thanks largely to restrictive labor market regulation, the influence of professional associations in setting the curricula and the numbers of courses/places have served to limit the supply of professional labor, rather than to satisfy the demands of the labor market. Furthermore, in the Brazilian public system, a lack of coherence in research, teaching, and career advancement policies in public institutions has often led to a concentration of professors doing specialized research at the expense of undergraduate teaching. By contrast, many private institutions are driven by profit, and therefore do not undertake any research or pay salaries necessary to attract and retain high-quality professors.

The public system, which includes many, but not all of the country's finest institutions, provides higher quality education than the private sector, charges no tuition, and limits the number of places. Competition for admittance is fierce, and wealthy students do best because they can afford elite private high schools and special preparation courses for the entrance exams. Estimates on enrollment by income quintile show that two thirds of students are from the highest income quintile, while only about 5% are from the two lowest. It is a generally recognized problem that students from lower and lower middle class backgrounds have greater difficulty gaining entrance to the free, public system. If these individuals study at all, they are more likely to be in the private system, where they must pay tuition. Some financial assistance is available from the government and the institutions themselves, but it does not sufficiently address the needs of the students in the system, and much less the potential students who are excluded due to inability to pay.

Clearly, many important changes are underway within the system. The challenge is to focus attention on those that will promote the greatest progress in equitable access, quality, relevance, and efficiency. With this in mind, it is recommended the following steps. First, with respect to access: (a) the trend towards diversification through new instruments, such as sequential courses, and new institutional definitions (such as university centers) should continue; (b) the amount of targeted financial assistance for poor students should be increased; and (c) five and ten year enrollment increase targets should be identified, and progress toward improved coverage should be monitored closely. Additionally, the Government of Brazil has several policy options for increasing access to tertiary education that it may consider in the future. These include: i) increasing government and private funding of public institutions; in light of the current economic situation in Brazil, and the government's relatively high spending for higher education, it is unlikely that a large infusion of public funds for higher education is forthcoming. However, the addition of private resources could lead to an increased supply of places to the extent that the additional resources are used to educate and train students rather than to pay for administrative costs or research; ii) reducing costs per student at public institutions could be achieved in any number of ways and is best dealt with at the institutional level; and iii) charging tuition at public universities. This option is being used increasingly around the world as a means to maintain or increase institutional budgets. When combined with well thought out student aid schemes, this could have a positive impact on equity access.

===Higher Education structure===

Secondary education is mandatory for those wishing to pursue higher education. In addition, students must pass a competitive entrance examination (known as vestibular) for their specific course of study. The number of candidates per available place in the freshman class may be in excess of 30 or 40 to one in the most competitive courses at the top public universities. In some particular courses with small number of vacancies, this number can be as high as 200.

Higher education in Brazil, as in many nations, can be divided into both undergraduate and graduate work. In addition to providing education, Universities promote research and provide stand-alone classes to the community.

Higher education begins with undergraduate or sequential courses, which may offer different specialization choices such as academic or vocational education. Depending on choice, students may improve their educational background with postgraduate courses Stricto Sensu or Lato Sensu. Higher education has three bases: teaching, research and extension, each with their own specific contribution to make to a particular course. Diplomas and certificates are proof of having passed through higher education.

The standard Brazilian undergraduate bachelor's degree (graduação) is awarded in most fields of arts, humanities, social sciences, mathematical sciences, or natural sciences, and normally requires 4 years of post-secondary studies at a certified university. Students interested in teaching careers at secondary schools can take an additional year in lecturing courses (licenciatura). Five-year degrees are awarded in the so-called professional careers such as architecture, engineering, veterinary medicine, and law. The undergraduate degree in medicine requires in turn six years of full-time post-secondary studies. Residência, a two-to-five years internship in a teaching hospital is not required, but it is pursued by many professionals, especially those who wish to specialize in a given area.

Students who hold a four-year bachelor's degree or a five-year professional diploma are qualified for admission into graduate school (pós-graduação). Graduate master's degrees are normally awarded following the completion of a two-year program requiring satisfactory performance in a minimum number of advanced graduate courses (typically between five and eight classes), plus the submission by the degree candidate of a master's thesis (dissertação de mestrado) that is examined by an oral panel of at least three faculty members, including at least one external examiner. Doctoral degrees on the other hand normally require four years of full-time studies during which the degree candidate is required to complete further advanced graduate coursework, pass a doctoral qualifying exam, and submit an extensive doctoral dissertation (tese de doutorado) that must represent an original and relevant contribution to current knowledge in the field of study to which the dissertation topic belongs. The doctoral dissertation is examined in a final public oral exam administered by a panel of at least five faculty members, two of whom must be external examiners. Results from the dissertation are normally expected to be published in peer-reviewed journals, proceedings of international conferences, and/or in the form of books/book chapters.

===Problems in Higher education system===

The main problems the Brazilian higher education system is facing at present are the following:

1. Access: in spite of the rapid expansion during the last ten years, the system is still small compared with those of other countries in Latin America. Also, most students in higher education come from medium- and high-income groups. The poorest sections of the population can only enter higher education today as a result of the great expansion at secondary level.

2. Finance: the new sections of the population trying to enter higher education lack sufficient financial backing. Places in the free public institutions are very restricted and the cost of private education is very high in terms of the incomes of these new groups aspiring to enter higher education.

3. Quality: the quality of higher education institutions in Brazil is very variable. Alongside institutions with international reputations we find many with low levels of teaching and little encouragement to undertake research.

4. Efficiency: public institutions - usually of better quality than the rest - suffer great problems of inefficiency in the use of public resources, resulting in a relatively small number of students attending them in terms of the amount of funds invested.

5. Curricular structure unrelated to the needs of the labour market: the content of higher education courses in Brazil lacks the flexibility to adapt to the needs of the labour market.

6. Little connection with the productive sector: in general, technological research and development is carried out in universities with little connection with the productive sector.

===Expansion and access to Higher Education===

Higher education enrolments more than doubled in the last ten years. In spite of this significant growth, the gross rate of enrolments at the higher level in Brazil is very small when compared to international levels, even when compared to some of other comparable countries in Latin America. Nevertheless, there is a reasonable consensus of opinion on the need to settle on the most effective way to provide a more lasting solution to the problems of access and equity in higher education. In the 1980s growth in enrolments did not even keep up with population growth.

Between 1980 and 1994 expansion of higher education was quite restricted: growth of only 20% in enrolments; reduction of 3.5% in the number of higher education institutions and 26% growth in the number of courses. In 1994, total enrolments on undergraduate courses were 1.7 million. The higher education system at that time consisted of 851 institutions. There has been a significant increase in enrolments and completions of higher education courses in Brazil after 1995.

The growth in supply of courses in recent years has being greater in towns in the interior than in state capitals. That an ‘interiorization’ of higher education is occurring because of an appreciable growth in the numbers of courses, so that many towns which previously had no HEI now have one. This has brought great benefits to students who had been excluded on a regional basis. Many who had not been able to move to the state capital to study at the higher level and now have the chance to do so in their hometown.

Socio-economic data concerning students in Brazilian higher education institutions show the marked presence of those coming from social groups with average and high incomes. It can even be stated that the supply of places is basically a response to the demand for higher education that these classes have created. With the ever-growing demand and a far greater number of students able and desiring to enter higher education, private institutions have had ample room to increase their supply.

The growing expansion of secondary education and the increase in the number of students leaving this level of education suggests that there is greater pressure for obtaining chances of education at a higher level coming precisely from the poorer classes in society. The growth in supply of courses in recent years has been greater in the poorest states and in towns in the interior than in the southwest or south and state capitals. Projections concerning access to higher education indicate the growth among students from lower-income families in the total numbers of new entrants to higher education. This is happening due to the increased flow of students coming from public secondary education and the increasing demand for better-qualified personnel with university degrees for jobs which previously did not require them.

One of the main areas for public policy in relation to access is the design of the means of financing studies and maintaining lower-income students in the system. The policies of increasing rates of schooling at higher level with improved quality at this level, especially in public institutions, increasing the number of places on evening courses, the broad re-design of the means of financing studies and maintaining lower-income students in the system, are some of the possible initiatives being put into place. The country has experienced several mechanisms for increasing access to higher education, including student loans programmes, scholarships in private institution in exchange of tax exemption and, quotas. The policy of quotas, which is very controversial, appears in this context as a transitional strategy. It is also important to emphasize that the expansion of evening classes in the public sector is still insufficient to meet the potential demand from students who are finishing their public secondary education during the evening ‘shift’. A great part of this potential demand has been met by the private sector. In Brazil, 68% of private enrolments are for the evening period, in which most courses do not require full-time attendance.

===Information society strategy period===

Most efforts in technological development and innovation have been concentrated in certain of Brazil’s universities and not in the business world. Research and development is a strength of higher education of Brazil. Today, almost all states have federal universities, and foundations to encourage research. However, these institutions do not have the same kind of autonomy, especially in terms of continuous, regular and guaranteed financing.

On the other side, Brazil’s scientific and technological development in the area of business is still at an initial stage. Brazilian companies have been late in incorporating and developing technology. It is also a consequence of the weakness of business sector's own capacity of research. On top of that, the collaboration between academia and industries is also very insufficient taking into account the needs of Brazilian development. Besides the poor performance of the Brazilian companies in relation to innovation, there is some prejudice that exist among Brazilian scholars in relation to the cooperation with the private sector.

Brazil shows a paradox: on the one hand, there is in the business sphere a low capacity for absorbing human resources into Science, Technology and Innovation (S&T&I); on the other hand, the system of training these resources has shown a large increase in supply especially in terms of postgraduate programmes. In the last two decades, Brazil’s scientific capacity has grown systematically year by year at an increasingly faster rate. The ranking of countries, according to their participation in world scientific production – Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) of the National Science Indicators (NSI) – is evidence of Brazil’s progress in this field. In 1981, Brazil was in 26th place; in 2001, it already occupied a worthy 18th position. On the other side, from 2000 to 2003 a slow growth was observed in technological development and innovation in Brazilian industry.

The fact that national research being concentrated in universities - in particular at the postgraduate level - makes it very dependent on the training of those with master’s and doctoral degrees. In this context, the importance of new strategies to bring the network of universities together with the world of business becomes more important. An important step in this direction was taken by the recently voted and approved Innovation Law. New means of finance – Sector Funds – and identification of priority sectors in industrial policy, as well as the formulation of the post graduate development plan by CAPES, indicates the desire to continue these trends.

It may be said that a move towards innovation and a clearer preparation for future expansion in R & D activities within growing companies is beginning to be developed recently. There are, however, obstacles hindering this development from proceeding more rapidly. These obstacles are mainly due to organizational inflexibility, problems in the marketplace and the absence of systemic synergy. However, what is most noticeable in the two periods studied is that over 30% of companies complain of lack of qualified personnel. This shows that, even where there is clear difficulty in absorbing manpower, there are questions of quality that have to be overcome.

==Education reform==
An important part of the Brazilian education reform began in 1995 with the creation of a federal department called the "Secretary of Distance Education" (SEED). The goal of SEED is to use information and communication technologies toward supporting and improving the quality and dissemination of education in this country with a population of 170 million people spread across nearly 1/2 of South America's land mass. Under SEED's "Proinfo" program, computers and access to the internet were issued to all public schools in Brazil, under the condition that the schools present an appropriate pedagogical strategy. To this end, each municipal government was allocated funding to establish a "Nucleus of Educational Technology" (NTE), making computer labs and networks available for teachers, and offering educational programs for teacher training.

Another important advance occurred in 1997, when the Brazilian Ministry of Education decreed that all K-12 school teachers have an undergraduate degree, and all university teachers a masters degree, by the year 2006. This meant that at least 50% of the Brazilian teachers and professors would have to upgrade their skills in a relatively short time, resulting in a huge and widespread demand for teacher training, as well as need to create solutions for efficient and effective teacher education.

The Distance Education Laboratory (LED) of the Federal University of Santa Catarina (South Brazil) has been meeting this challenge for several years by forming partnerships with educational institutions all over Brazil, implementing programs using Teleconferencing, Videoconferencing and Internet-based distance education programs, making it possible for teachers to avoid leaving their posts to learn. Although the subjects taught via the LED are varied, they are mainly related to information technology and education, according to each institution's specific needs and budget.

==Brazil virtual university==

http://www.rnp.br/en/news/2000/not-000201_en.html

==References==

some extra info on Brazil education system:
http://www.wwwords.co.uk/pdf/viewpdf.asp?j=elea&vol=3&issue=4&year=2006&article=9_Reifschneider_ELEA_3_4_web&id=134.58.253.57

http://www.usdla.org/html/journal/DEC02_Issue/article05.html

http://www.tfhe.net/resources/higher_edu_brazil.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Brazil

http://www.isep.org/students/placed/handbook_education.asp?country=7

Brazil

2008-09-03T12:39:42Z

SandisZuciks: /* Table 1. Institutions of Higher Education in Brazil in 2004 */

==Brazil in nutshell==

[[Image:Brazil-map.gif|left|400mp]]
Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is a country in South America. It is the fifth largest country by geographical area, the fifth most populous country, and the fourth most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of over 7,491 kilometers (4,655 mi). It is bordered on the north by Venezuela, Suriname, Guyana and the overseas department of French Guiana; on the northwest by Colombia; on the west by Bolivia and Peru; on the southwest by Argentina and Paraguay and on the south by Uruguay. Numerous archipelagos are part of the Brazilian territory, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz.

Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until its independence in 1822. Initially independent as the Brazilian Empire, the country has been a republic since 1889, even though its bicameral legislature (now called Congress) dates back to 1824, when the first constitution was ratified. Its current Constitution defines Brazil as a Federal Republic. The Federation is formed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities.

Brazil is the world's tenth largest economy at market exchange rates and the ninth largest in purchasing power. Economic reforms have given the country new international projection. It is a founding member of the United Nations and of the Union of South American Nations. A predominantly Roman Catholic, Portuguese-speaking and multiethnic society, Brazil is also home to a diversity of wildlife, natural environments, and extensive natural resources in a variety of protected habitats.

==Brazilian education policy==

Education in Brazil is regulated by the Federal Government, through the Ministry of Education, which defines the guiding principles for the organization of educational programs. Local governments are responsible for establishing state and city educational programsfollowing the guidelines and using the funding supplied by the Federal Government. Brazilian children must attend school a minimum of 9 years, however the schooling is usually inadequate.

The 1988 Brazilian Constitution states that "education" is "a right for all, a duty of the State and of the family, and is to be promoted with the collaboration of society, with the objective of fully developing the person, preparing the individual for the exercise of citizenship and qualifying him/her for work".

The National Educational Bases and Guidelines Law enacted in 1961 says that, "national education, inspired in the principles of freedom and in the ideals of human solidarity, has the purpose of:

*understanding individual rights and responsibilities, as well as those of citizens, the State and other community groups;
*respecting man's dignity and fundamental freedoms;
*strengthening national unity and international solidarity;
*integral development of the human personality and his/her participation in the work towards common welfare;
*preparing individuals and society to master scientific and technological resources which will allow the use existing possibilities to common welfare;
*protecting, disseminating and expanding cultural heritage;
*condemning any unequal treatment resulting from philosophical, political or religious belief, as well as any social classes or racial prejudices.

==Higher Education==
===Table 1. Institutions of Higher Education in Brazil in 2004===
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:11px;"
|-valign="top" style="background: #ECE5B6;"
!width=""|''' '''
!width=""|''' '''
!width=""|'''Universities'''
!width=""|'''University centers'''
!width=""|'''Integrated colleges '''
!width=""|'''Colleges, Schools, Institutes'''
!width=""|'''CET/FaT*'''

|-valign="top"
| '''Brazil'''|| 2013 || 169 || 107 || 119 || 1474 || 144
|-valign="top"
| '''Public'''|| 224 || 83 || 3 || 3 || 86 || 49
|-valign="top"
| Public- Federal|| 87 || 46 || 1 || - || 6 || 34
|-valign="top"
| Public- State|| 75 || 32 || - || - || 28 || 15
|-valign="top"
| Public- Municipal|| 62 || 5 || 2 || 3 || 52 || -
|-valign="top"
| '''Private''' || 1789 || 86 || 104 || 116 || 1388 || 95
|-valign="top"
| Private - Private || 1401 || 26 || 60 ||97 || 1125 || 93
|-valign="top"
| Private - Community|| 388 || 60 || 44 || 19 || 263 || 2
|}

*CET/FaT Centers for Technological Education and Collages of Technology (INEP, 2004b).

===Summary of Higher Education===

Brazil has put significant resources into developing its higher education system over the past three decades. As a result, a system has evolved in which some institutions have achieved recognizable excellence in teaching and research, while, more generally, the majority of institutions have struggled to provide relevant, quality education at reasonable cost. Looked at in isolation, certain parts of the system are sound and productive. Taken as a whole, the system still has a number of large challenges to overcome.

About 15% of the age cohort is enrolled in higher education. This is quite low compared to other countries in the region (Argentina 36%; Chile 32%; Uruguay 30%; Venezuela, R.B. 29% [World Development Indicators 2001]) and to the OECD country average of 52% (OECD, 2001). Simply doubling the number of spaces offered, however, will not double the rate of coverage, because a demographic bulge of young Brazilians is reaching university age. Over the past 15 years, growth in private provision of higher education was roughly equal to the moderate growth of the university-age cohort, but now large absolute increases in enrollments would be needed simply to maintain the current rate of coverage. In addition, graduation rates from secondary schools are rising sharply and more older, working Brazilians are seeking tertiary degrees. In short, a larger percentage of a growing number of Brazilians are demanding higher education, and the system cannot keep pace with this demand under existing conditions.

Cost per student in public institutions, roughly R$14,000 per year in the federal system, is on par with OECD country averages while quality is not. Rigidities in funding and regulation create strong disincentives for cost-efficiency or quality. Public universities have been funded on the basis of input. Federal policy toward higher education, until recently, did not attempt to control costs or correlate funding to productivity. Other legislation and regulations, outside the control or influence of MEC, created built-in cost increases that did not improve the access, quality, or relevance of the education. University rectors have traditionally concerned themselves more with obtaining resources from the federal government than with managing the resources effectively within their institutions.

With a few notable exceptions, the quality of instruction and the relevance of the curriculum are below desirable standards. Historically, the Brazilian system - like those of continental Europe - is oriented to provide professional training rather than general or interdisciplinary education. Holders of a first university degree (graduação) are licensed to practice their profession by virtue of their diplomas. Such systems have been successful, productive, and of high quality under a variety of conditions. However, in Brazil, thanks largely to restrictive labor market regulation, the influence of professional associations in setting the curricula and the numbers of courses/places have served to limit the supply of professional labor, rather than to satisfy the demands of the labor market. Furthermore, in the Brazilian public system, a lack of coherence in research, teaching, and career advancement policies in public institutions has often led to a concentration of professors doing specialized research at the expense of undergraduate teaching. By contrast, many private institutions are driven by profit, and therefore do not undertake any research or pay salaries necessary to attract and retain high-quality professors.

The public system, which includes many, but not all of the country's finest institutions, provides higher quality education than the private sector, charges no tuition, and limits the number of places. Competition for admittance is fierce, and wealthy students do best because they can afford elite private high schools and special preparation courses for the entrance exams. Estimates on enrollment by income quintile show that two thirds of students are from the highest income quintile, while only about 5% are from the two lowest. It is a generally recognized problem that students from lower and lower middle class backgrounds have greater difficulty gaining entrance to the free, public system. If these individuals study at all, they are more likely to be in the private system, where they must pay tuition. Some financial assistance is available from the government and the institutions themselves, but it does not sufficiently address the needs of the students in the system, and much less the potential students who are excluded due to inability to pay.

Clearly, many important changes are underway within the system. The challenge is to focus attention on those that will promote the greatest progress in equitable access, quality, relevance, and efficiency. With this in mind, it is recommended the following steps. First, with respect to access: (a) the trend towards diversification through new instruments, such as sequential courses, and new institutional definitions (such as university centers) should continue; (b) the amount of targeted financial assistance for poor students should be increased; and (c) five and ten year enrollment increase targets should be identified, and progress toward improved coverage should be monitored closely. Additionally, the Government of Brazil has several policy options for increasing access to tertiary education that it may consider in the future. These include: i) increasing government and private funding of public institutions; in light of the current economic situation in Brazil, and the government's relatively high spending for higher education, it is unlikely that a large infusion of public funds for higher education is forthcoming. However, the addition of private resources could lead to an increased supply of places to the extent that the additional resources are used to educate and train students rather than to pay for administrative costs or research; ii) reducing costs per student at public institutions could be achieved in any number of ways and is best dealt with at the institutional level; and iii) charging tuition at public universities. This option is being used increasingly around the world as a means to maintain or increase institutional budgets. When combined with well thought out student aid schemes, this could have a positive impact on equity access.

===Higher Education structure===

Secondary education is mandatory for those wishing to pursue higher education. In addition, students must pass a competitive entrance examination (known as vestibular) for their specific course of study. The number of candidates per available place in the freshman class may be in excess of 30 or 40 to one in the most competitive courses at the top public universities. In some particular courses with small number of vacancies, this number can be as high as 200.

Higher education in Brazil, as in many nations, can be divided into both undergraduate and graduate work. In addition to providing education, Universities promote research and provide stand-alone classes to the community.

Higher education begins with undergraduate or sequential courses, which may offer different specialization choices such as academic or vocational education. Depending on choice, students may improve their educational background with postgraduate courses Stricto Sensu or Lato Sensu. Higher education has three bases: teaching, research and extension, each with their own specific contribution to make to a particular course. Diplomas and certificates are proof of having passed through higher education.

The standard Brazilian undergraduate bachelor's degree (graduação) is awarded in most fields of arts, humanities, social sciences, mathematical sciences, or natural sciences, and normally requires 4 years of post-secondary studies at a certified university. Students interested in teaching careers at secondary schools can take an additional year in lecturing courses (licenciatura). Five-year degrees are awarded in the so-called professional careers such as architecture, engineering, veterinary medicine, and law. The undergraduate degree in medicine requires in turn six years of full-time post-secondary studies. Residência, a two-to-five years internship in a teaching hospital is not required, but it is pursued by many professionals, especially those who wish to specialize in a given area.

Students who hold a four-year bachelor's degree or a five-year professional diploma are qualified for admission into graduate school (pós-graduação). Graduate master's degrees are normally awarded following the completion of a two-year program requiring satisfactory performance in a minimum number of advanced graduate courses (typically between five and eight classes), plus the submission by the degree candidate of a master's thesis (dissertação de mestrado) that is examined by an oral panel of at least three faculty members, including at least one external examiner. Doctoral degrees on the other hand normally require four years of full-time studies during which the degree candidate is required to complete further advanced graduate coursework, pass a doctoral qualifying exam, and submit an extensive doctoral dissertation (tese de doutorado) that must represent an original and relevant contribution to current knowledge in the field of study to which the dissertation topic belongs. The doctoral dissertation is examined in a final public oral exam administered by a panel of at least five faculty members, two of whom must be external examiners. Results from the dissertation are normally expected to be published in peer-reviewed journals, proceedings of international conferences, and/or in the form of books/book chapters.

===Problems in Higher education system===

The main problems the Brazilian higher education system is facing at present are the following:

1. Access: in spite of the rapid expansion during the last ten years, the system is still small compared with those of other countries in Latin America. Also, most students in higher education come from medium- and high-income groups. The poorest sections of the population can only enter higher education today as a result of the great expansion at secondary level.

2. Finance: the new sections of the population trying to enter higher education lack sufficient financial backing. Places in the free public institutions are very restricted and the cost of private education is very high in terms of the incomes of these new groups aspiring to enter higher education.

3. Quality: the quality of higher education institutions in Brazil is very variable. Alongside institutions with international reputations we find many with low levels of teaching and little encouragement to undertake research.

4. Efficiency: public institutions - usually of better quality than the rest - suffer great problems of inefficiency in the use of public resources, resulting in a relatively small number of students attending them in terms of the amount of funds invested.

5. Curricular structure unrelated to the needs of the labour market: the content of higher education courses in Brazil lacks the flexibility to adapt to the needs of the labour market.

6. Little connection with the productive sector: in general, technological research and development is carried out in universities with little connection with the productive sector.

===Expansion and access to Higher Education===

Higher education enrolments more than doubled in the last ten years. In spite of this significant growth, the gross rate of enrolments at the higher level in Brazil is very small when compared to international levels, even when compared to some of other comparable countries in Latin America. Nevertheless, there is a reasonable consensus of opinion on the need to settle on the most effective way to provide a more lasting solution to the problems of access and equity in higher education. In the 1980s growth in enrolments did not even keep up with population growth.

Between 1980 and 1994 expansion of higher education was quite restricted: growth of only 20% in enrolments; reduction of 3.5% in the number of higher education institutions and 26% growth in the number of courses. In 1994, total enrolments on undergraduate courses were 1.7 million. The higher education system at that time consisted of 851 institutions. There has been a significant increase in enrolments and completions of higher education courses in Brazil after 1995.

The growth in supply of courses in recent years has being greater in towns in the interior than in state capitals. That an ‘interiorization’ of higher education is occurring because of an appreciable growth in the numbers of courses, so that many towns which previously had no HEI now have one. This has brought great benefits to students who had been excluded on a regional basis. Many who had not been able to move to the state capital to study at the higher level and now have the chance to do so in their hometown.

Socio-economic data concerning students in Brazilian higher education institutions show the marked presence of those coming from social groups with average and high incomes. It can even be stated that the supply of places is basically a response to the demand for higher education that these classes have created. With the ever-growing demand and a far greater number of students able and desiring to enter higher education, private institutions have had ample room to increase their supply.

The growing expansion of secondary education and the increase in the number of students leaving this level of education suggests that there is greater pressure for obtaining chances of education at a higher level coming precisely from the poorer classes in society. The growth in supply of courses in recent years has been greater in the poorest states and in towns in the interior than in the southwest or south and state capitals. Projections concerning access to higher education indicate the growth among students from lower-income families in the total numbers of new entrants to higher education. This is happening due to the increased flow of students coming from public secondary education and the increasing demand for better-qualified personnel with university degrees for jobs which previously did not require them.

One of the main areas for public policy in relation to access is the design of the means of financing studies and maintaining lower-income students in the system. The policies of increasing rates of schooling at higher level with improved quality at this level, especially in public institutions, increasing the number of places on evening courses, the broad re-design of the means of financing studies and maintaining lower-income students in the system, are some of the possible initiatives being put into place. The country has experienced several mechanisms for increasing access to higher education, including student loans programmes, scholarships in private institution in exchange of tax exemption and, quotas. The policy of quotas, which is very controversial, appears in this context as a transitional strategy. It is also important to emphasize that the expansion of evening classes in the public sector is still insufficient to meet the potential demand from students who are finishing their public secondary education during the evening ‘shift’. A great part of this potential demand has been met by the private sector. In Brazil, 68% of private enrolments are for the evening period, in which most courses do not require full-time attendance.

===Information society strategy period===

Most efforts in technological development and innovation have been concentrated in certain of Brazil’s universities and not in the business world. Research and development is a strength of higher education of Brazil. Today, almost all states have federal universities, and foundations to encourage research. However, these institutions do not have the same kind of autonomy, especially in terms of continuous, regular and guaranteed financing.

On the other side, Brazil’s scientific and technological development in the area of business is still at an initial stage. Brazilian companies have been late in incorporating and developing technology. It is also a consequence of the weakness of business sector's own capacity of research. On top of that, the collaboration between academia and industries is also very insufficient taking into account the needs of Brazilian development. Besides the poor performance of the Brazilian companies in relation to innovation, there is some prejudice that exist among Brazilian scholars in relation to the cooperation with the private sector.

Brazil shows a paradox: on the one hand, there is in the business sphere a low capacity for absorbing human resources into Science, Technology and Innovation (S&T&I); on the other hand, the system of training these resources has shown a large increase in supply especially in terms of postgraduate programmes. In the last two decades, Brazil’s scientific capacity has grown systematically year by year at an increasingly faster rate. The ranking of countries, according to their participation in world scientific production – Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) of the National Science Indicators (NSI) – is evidence of Brazil’s progress in this field. In 1981, Brazil was in 26th place; in 2001, it already occupied a worthy 18th position. On the other side, from 2000 to 2003 a slow growth was observed in technological development and innovation in Brazilian industry.

The fact that national research being concentrated in universities - in particular at the postgraduate level - makes it very dependent on the training of those with master’s and doctoral degrees. In this context, the importance of new strategies to bring the network of universities together with the world of business becomes more important. An important step in this direction was taken by the recently voted and approved Innovation Law. New means of finance – Sector Funds – and identification of priority sectors in industrial policy, as well as the formulation of the post graduate development plan by CAPES, indicates the desire to continue these trends.

It may be said that a move towards innovation and a clearer preparation for future expansion in R & D activities within growing companies is beginning to be developed recently. There are, however, obstacles hindering this development from proceeding more rapidly. These obstacles are mainly due to organizational inflexibility, problems in the marketplace and the absence of systemic synergy. However, what is most noticeable in the two periods studied is that over 30% of companies complain of lack of qualified personnel. This shows that, even where there is clear difficulty in absorbing manpower, there are questions of quality that have to be overcome.

==Education reform==
An important part of the Brazilian education reform began in 1995 with the creation of a federal department called the "Secretary of Distance Education" (SEED). The goal of SEED is to use information and communication technologies toward supporting and improving the quality and dissemination of education in this country with a population of 170 million people spread across nearly 1/2 of South America's land mass. Under SEED's "Proinfo" program, computers and access to the internet were issued to all public schools in Brazil, under the condition that the schools present an appropriate pedagogical strategy. To this end, each municipal government was allocated funding to establish a "Nucleus of Educational Technology" (NTE), making computer labs and networks available for teachers, and offering educational programs for teacher training.

Another important advance occurred in 1997, when the Brazilian Ministry of Education decreed that all K-12 school teachers have an undergraduate degree, and all university teachers a masters degree, by the year 2006. This meant that at least 50% of the Brazilian teachers and professors would have to upgrade their skills in a relatively short time, resulting in a huge and widespread demand for teacher training, as well as need to create solutions for efficient and effective teacher education.

The Distance Education Laboratory (LED) of the Federal University of Santa Catarina (South Brazil) has been meeting this challenge for several years by forming partnerships with educational institutions all over Brazil, implementing programs using Teleconferencing, Videoconferencing and Internet-based distance education programs, making it possible for teachers to avoid leaving their posts to learn. Although the subjects taught via the LED are varied, they are mainly related to information technology and education, according to each institution's specific needs and budget.

==Brazil virtual university==

http://www.rnp.br/en/news/2000/not-000201_en.html

==References==

some extra info on Brazil education system:
http://www.wwwords.co.uk/pdf/viewpdf.asp?j=elea&vol=3&issue=4&year=2006&article=9_Reifschneider_ELEA_3_4_web&id=134.58.253.57

http://www.usdla.org/html/journal/DEC02_Issue/article05.html

http://www.tfhe.net/resources/higher_edu_brazil.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Brazil

http://www.isep.org/students/placed/handbook_education.asp?country=7

Brazil

2008-09-03T12:39:09Z

SandisZuciks: /* Table 1. Institutions of Higher Education in Brazil in 2004 */

==Brazil in nutshell==

[[Image:Brazil-map.gif|left|400mp]]
Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is a country in South America. It is the fifth largest country by geographical area, the fifth most populous country, and the fourth most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of over 7,491 kilometers (4,655 mi). It is bordered on the north by Venezuela, Suriname, Guyana and the overseas department of French Guiana; on the northwest by Colombia; on the west by Bolivia and Peru; on the southwest by Argentina and Paraguay and on the south by Uruguay. Numerous archipelagos are part of the Brazilian territory, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz.

Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until its independence in 1822. Initially independent as the Brazilian Empire, the country has been a republic since 1889, even though its bicameral legislature (now called Congress) dates back to 1824, when the first constitution was ratified. Its current Constitution defines Brazil as a Federal Republic. The Federation is formed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities.

Brazil is the world's tenth largest economy at market exchange rates and the ninth largest in purchasing power. Economic reforms have given the country new international projection. It is a founding member of the United Nations and of the Union of South American Nations. A predominantly Roman Catholic, Portuguese-speaking and multiethnic society, Brazil is also home to a diversity of wildlife, natural environments, and extensive natural resources in a variety of protected habitats.

==Brazilian education policy==

Education in Brazil is regulated by the Federal Government, through the Ministry of Education, which defines the guiding principles for the organization of educational programs. Local governments are responsible for establishing state and city educational programsfollowing the guidelines and using the funding supplied by the Federal Government. Brazilian children must attend school a minimum of 9 years, however the schooling is usually inadequate.

The 1988 Brazilian Constitution states that "education" is "a right for all, a duty of the State and of the family, and is to be promoted with the collaboration of society, with the objective of fully developing the person, preparing the individual for the exercise of citizenship and qualifying him/her for work".

The National Educational Bases and Guidelines Law enacted in 1961 says that, "national education, inspired in the principles of freedom and in the ideals of human solidarity, has the purpose of:

*understanding individual rights and responsibilities, as well as those of citizens, the State and other community groups;
*respecting man's dignity and fundamental freedoms;
*strengthening national unity and international solidarity;
*integral development of the human personality and his/her participation in the work towards common welfare;
*preparing individuals and society to master scientific and technological resources which will allow the use existing possibilities to common welfare;
*protecting, disseminating and expanding cultural heritage;
*condemning any unequal treatment resulting from philosophical, political or religious belief, as well as any social classes or racial prejudices.

==Higher Education==
===Table 1. Institutions of Higher Education in Brazil in 2004===
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:11px;"
|-valign="top" style="background: #ECE5B6;"
!width=""|''' '''
!width=""|''' '''
!width=""|'''Universities'''
!width=""|'''University centers'''
!width=""|'''Integrated colleges '''
!width=""|'''Colleges, Schools, Institutes'''
!width=""|'''CET/FaT*'''

|-valign="top"
| '''Brazil''''''|| 2013 || 169 || 107 || 119 || 1474 || 144'''
|-valign="top"
| '''Public''''''|| 224 || 83 || 3 || 3 || 86 || 49'''
|-valign="top"
| Public- Federal|| 87 || 46 || 1 || - || 6 || 34
|-valign="top"
| Public- State|| 75 || 32 || - || - || 28 || 15
|-valign="top"
| Public- Municipal|| 62 || 5 || 2 || 3 || 52 || -
|-valign="top"
| '''Private''' '''|| 1789 || 86 || 104 || 116 || 1388 || 95'''
|-valign="top"
| Private - Private || 1401 || 26 || 60 ||97 || 1125 || 93
|-valign="top"
| Private - Community|| 388 || 60 || 44 || 19 || 263 || 2
|}

*CET/FaT Centers for Technological Education and Collages of Technology (INEP, 2004b).

===Summary of Higher Education===

Brazil has put significant resources into developing its higher education system over the past three decades. As a result, a system has evolved in which some institutions have achieved recognizable excellence in teaching and research, while, more generally, the majority of institutions have struggled to provide relevant, quality education at reasonable cost. Looked at in isolation, certain parts of the system are sound and productive. Taken as a whole, the system still has a number of large challenges to overcome.

About 15% of the age cohort is enrolled in higher education. This is quite low compared to other countries in the region (Argentina 36%; Chile 32%; Uruguay 30%; Venezuela, R.B. 29% [World Development Indicators 2001]) and to the OECD country average of 52% (OECD, 2001). Simply doubling the number of spaces offered, however, will not double the rate of coverage, because a demographic bulge of young Brazilians is reaching university age. Over the past 15 years, growth in private provision of higher education was roughly equal to the moderate growth of the university-age cohort, but now large absolute increases in enrollments would be needed simply to maintain the current rate of coverage. In addition, graduation rates from secondary schools are rising sharply and more older, working Brazilians are seeking tertiary degrees. In short, a larger percentage of a growing number of Brazilians are demanding higher education, and the system cannot keep pace with this demand under existing conditions.

Cost per student in public institutions, roughly R$14,000 per year in the federal system, is on par with OECD country averages while quality is not. Rigidities in funding and regulation create strong disincentives for cost-efficiency or quality. Public universities have been funded on the basis of input. Federal policy toward higher education, until recently, did not attempt to control costs or correlate funding to productivity. Other legislation and regulations, outside the control or influence of MEC, created built-in cost increases that did not improve the access, quality, or relevance of the education. University rectors have traditionally concerned themselves more with obtaining resources from the federal government than with managing the resources effectively within their institutions.

With a few notable exceptions, the quality of instruction and the relevance of the curriculum are below desirable standards. Historically, the Brazilian system - like those of continental Europe - is oriented to provide professional training rather than general or interdisciplinary education. Holders of a first university degree (graduação) are licensed to practice their profession by virtue of their diplomas. Such systems have been successful, productive, and of high quality under a variety of conditions. However, in Brazil, thanks largely to restrictive labor market regulation, the influence of professional associations in setting the curricula and the numbers of courses/places have served to limit the supply of professional labor, rather than to satisfy the demands of the labor market. Furthermore, in the Brazilian public system, a lack of coherence in research, teaching, and career advancement policies in public institutions has often led to a concentration of professors doing specialized research at the expense of undergraduate teaching. By contrast, many private institutions are driven by profit, and therefore do not undertake any research or pay salaries necessary to attract and retain high-quality professors.

The public system, which includes many, but not all of the country's finest institutions, provides higher quality education than the private sector, charges no tuition, and limits the number of places. Competition for admittance is fierce, and wealthy students do best because they can afford elite private high schools and special preparation courses for the entrance exams. Estimates on enrollment by income quintile show that two thirds of students are from the highest income quintile, while only about 5% are from the two lowest. It is a generally recognized problem that students from lower and lower middle class backgrounds have greater difficulty gaining entrance to the free, public system. If these individuals study at all, they are more likely to be in the private system, where they must pay tuition. Some financial assistance is available from the government and the institutions themselves, but it does not sufficiently address the needs of the students in the system, and much less the potential students who are excluded due to inability to pay.

Clearly, many important changes are underway within the system. The challenge is to focus attention on those that will promote the greatest progress in equitable access, quality, relevance, and efficiency. With this in mind, it is recommended the following steps. First, with respect to access: (a) the trend towards diversification through new instruments, such as sequential courses, and new institutional definitions (such as university centers) should continue; (b) the amount of targeted financial assistance for poor students should be increased; and (c) five and ten year enrollment increase targets should be identified, and progress toward improved coverage should be monitored closely. Additionally, the Government of Brazil has several policy options for increasing access to tertiary education that it may consider in the future. These include: i) increasing government and private funding of public institutions; in light of the current economic situation in Brazil, and the government's relatively high spending for higher education, it is unlikely that a large infusion of public funds for higher education is forthcoming. However, the addition of private resources could lead to an increased supply of places to the extent that the additional resources are used to educate and train students rather than to pay for administrative costs or research; ii) reducing costs per student at public institutions could be achieved in any number of ways and is best dealt with at the institutional level; and iii) charging tuition at public universities. This option is being used increasingly around the world as a means to maintain or increase institutional budgets. When combined with well thought out student aid schemes, this could have a positive impact on equity access.

===Higher Education structure===

Secondary education is mandatory for those wishing to pursue higher education. In addition, students must pass a competitive entrance examination (known as vestibular) for their specific course of study. The number of candidates per available place in the freshman class may be in excess of 30 or 40 to one in the most competitive courses at the top public universities. In some particular courses with small number of vacancies, this number can be as high as 200.

Higher education in Brazil, as in many nations, can be divided into both undergraduate and graduate work. In addition to providing education, Universities promote research and provide stand-alone classes to the community.

Higher education begins with undergraduate or sequential courses, which may offer different specialization choices such as academic or vocational education. Depending on choice, students may improve their educational background with postgraduate courses Stricto Sensu or Lato Sensu. Higher education has three bases: teaching, research and extension, each with their own specific contribution to make to a particular course. Diplomas and certificates are proof of having passed through higher education.

The standard Brazilian undergraduate bachelor's degree (graduação) is awarded in most fields of arts, humanities, social sciences, mathematical sciences, or natural sciences, and normally requires 4 years of post-secondary studies at a certified university. Students interested in teaching careers at secondary schools can take an additional year in lecturing courses (licenciatura). Five-year degrees are awarded in the so-called professional careers such as architecture, engineering, veterinary medicine, and law. The undergraduate degree in medicine requires in turn six years of full-time post-secondary studies. Residência, a two-to-five years internship in a teaching hospital is not required, but it is pursued by many professionals, especially those who wish to specialize in a given area.

Students who hold a four-year bachelor's degree or a five-year professional diploma are qualified for admission into graduate school (pós-graduação). Graduate master's degrees are normally awarded following the completion of a two-year program requiring satisfactory performance in a minimum number of advanced graduate courses (typically between five and eight classes), plus the submission by the degree candidate of a master's thesis (dissertação de mestrado) that is examined by an oral panel of at least three faculty members, including at least one external examiner. Doctoral degrees on the other hand normally require four years of full-time studies during which the degree candidate is required to complete further advanced graduate coursework, pass a doctoral qualifying exam, and submit an extensive doctoral dissertation (tese de doutorado) that must represent an original and relevant contribution to current knowledge in the field of study to which the dissertation topic belongs. The doctoral dissertation is examined in a final public oral exam administered by a panel of at least five faculty members, two of whom must be external examiners. Results from the dissertation are normally expected to be published in peer-reviewed journals, proceedings of international conferences, and/or in the form of books/book chapters.

===Problems in Higher education system===

The main problems the Brazilian higher education system is facing at present are the following:

1. Access: in spite of the rapid expansion during the last ten years, the system is still small compared with those of other countries in Latin America. Also, most students in higher education come from medium- and high-income groups. The poorest sections of the population can only enter higher education today as a result of the great expansion at secondary level.

2. Finance: the new sections of the population trying to enter higher education lack sufficient financial backing. Places in the free public institutions are very restricted and the cost of private education is very high in terms of the incomes of these new groups aspiring to enter higher education.

3. Quality: the quality of higher education institutions in Brazil is very variable. Alongside institutions with international reputations we find many with low levels of teaching and little encouragement to undertake research.

4. Efficiency: public institutions - usually of better quality than the rest - suffer great problems of inefficiency in the use of public resources, resulting in a relatively small number of students attending them in terms of the amount of funds invested.

5. Curricular structure unrelated to the needs of the labour market: the content of higher education courses in Brazil lacks the flexibility to adapt to the needs of the labour market.

6. Little connection with the productive sector: in general, technological research and development is carried out in universities with little connection with the productive sector.

===Expansion and access to Higher Education===

Higher education enrolments more than doubled in the last ten years. In spite of this significant growth, the gross rate of enrolments at the higher level in Brazil is very small when compared to international levels, even when compared to some of other comparable countries in Latin America. Nevertheless, there is a reasonable consensus of opinion on the need to settle on the most effective way to provide a more lasting solution to the problems of access and equity in higher education. In the 1980s growth in enrolments did not even keep up with population growth.

Between 1980 and 1994 expansion of higher education was quite restricted: growth of only 20% in enrolments; reduction of 3.5% in the number of higher education institutions and 26% growth in the number of courses. In 1994, total enrolments on undergraduate courses were 1.7 million. The higher education system at that time consisted of 851 institutions. There has been a significant increase in enrolments and completions of higher education courses in Brazil after 1995.

The growth in supply of courses in recent years has being greater in towns in the interior than in state capitals. That an ‘interiorization’ of higher education is occurring because of an appreciable growth in the numbers of courses, so that many towns which previously had no HEI now have one. This has brought great benefits to students who had been excluded on a regional basis. Many who had not been able to move to the state capital to study at the higher level and now have the chance to do so in their hometown.

Socio-economic data concerning students in Brazilian higher education institutions show the marked presence of those coming from social groups with average and high incomes. It can even be stated that the supply of places is basically a response to the demand for higher education that these classes have created. With the ever-growing demand and a far greater number of students able and desiring to enter higher education, private institutions have had ample room to increase their supply.

The growing expansion of secondary education and the increase in the number of students leaving this level of education suggests that there is greater pressure for obtaining chances of education at a higher level coming precisely from the poorer classes in society. The growth in supply of courses in recent years has been greater in the poorest states and in towns in the interior than in the southwest or south and state capitals. Projections concerning access to higher education indicate the growth among students from lower-income families in the total numbers of new entrants to higher education. This is happening due to the increased flow of students coming from public secondary education and the increasing demand for better-qualified personnel with university degrees for jobs which previously did not require them.

One of the main areas for public policy in relation to access is the design of the means of financing studies and maintaining lower-income students in the system. The policies of increasing rates of schooling at higher level with improved quality at this level, especially in public institutions, increasing the number of places on evening courses, the broad re-design of the means of financing studies and maintaining lower-income students in the system, are some of the possible initiatives being put into place. The country has experienced several mechanisms for increasing access to higher education, including student loans programmes, scholarships in private institution in exchange of tax exemption and, quotas. The policy of quotas, which is very controversial, appears in this context as a transitional strategy. It is also important to emphasize that the expansion of evening classes in the public sector is still insufficient to meet the potential demand from students who are finishing their public secondary education during the evening ‘shift’. A great part of this potential demand has been met by the private sector. In Brazil, 68% of private enrolments are for the evening period, in which most courses do not require full-time attendance.

===Information society strategy period===

Most efforts in technological development and innovation have been concentrated in certain of Brazil’s universities and not in the business world. Research and development is a strength of higher education of Brazil. Today, almost all states have federal universities, and foundations to encourage research. However, these institutions do not have the same kind of autonomy, especially in terms of continuous, regular and guaranteed financing.

On the other side, Brazil’s scientific and technological development in the area of business is still at an initial stage. Brazilian companies have been late in incorporating and developing technology. It is also a consequence of the weakness of business sector's own capacity of research. On top of that, the collaboration between academia and industries is also very insufficient taking into account the needs of Brazilian development. Besides the poor performance of the Brazilian companies in relation to innovation, there is some prejudice that exist among Brazilian scholars in relation to the cooperation with the private sector.

Brazil shows a paradox: on the one hand, there is in the business sphere a low capacity for absorbing human resources into Science, Technology and Innovation (S&T&I); on the other hand, the system of training these resources has shown a large increase in supply especially in terms of postgraduate programmes. In the last two decades, Brazil’s scientific capacity has grown systematically year by year at an increasingly faster rate. The ranking of countries, according to their participation in world scientific production – Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) of the National Science Indicators (NSI) – is evidence of Brazil’s progress in this field. In 1981, Brazil was in 26th place; in 2001, it already occupied a worthy 18th position. On the other side, from 2000 to 2003 a slow growth was observed in technological development and innovation in Brazilian industry.

The fact that national research being concentrated in universities - in particular at the postgraduate level - makes it very dependent on the training of those with master’s and doctoral degrees. In this context, the importance of new strategies to bring the network of universities together with the world of business becomes more important. An important step in this direction was taken by the recently voted and approved Innovation Law. New means of finance – Sector Funds – and identification of priority sectors in industrial policy, as well as the formulation of the post graduate development plan by CAPES, indicates the desire to continue these trends.

It may be said that a move towards innovation and a clearer preparation for future expansion in R & D activities within growing companies is beginning to be developed recently. There are, however, obstacles hindering this development from proceeding more rapidly. These obstacles are mainly due to organizational inflexibility, problems in the marketplace and the absence of systemic synergy. However, what is most noticeable in the two periods studied is that over 30% of companies complain of lack of qualified personnel. This shows that, even where there is clear difficulty in absorbing manpower, there are questions of quality that have to be overcome.

==Education reform==
An important part of the Brazilian education reform began in 1995 with the creation of a federal department called the "Secretary of Distance Education" (SEED). The goal of SEED is to use information and communication technologies toward supporting and improving the quality and dissemination of education in this country with a population of 170 million people spread across nearly 1/2 of South America's land mass. Under SEED's "Proinfo" program, computers and access to the internet were issued to all public schools in Brazil, under the condition that the schools present an appropriate pedagogical strategy. To this end, each municipal government was allocated funding to establish a "Nucleus of Educational Technology" (NTE), making computer labs and networks available for teachers, and offering educational programs for teacher training.

Another important advance occurred in 1997, when the Brazilian Ministry of Education decreed that all K-12 school teachers have an undergraduate degree, and all university teachers a masters degree, by the year 2006. This meant that at least 50% of the Brazilian teachers and professors would have to upgrade their skills in a relatively short time, resulting in a huge and widespread demand for teacher training, as well as need to create solutions for efficient and effective teacher education.

The Distance Education Laboratory (LED) of the Federal University of Santa Catarina (South Brazil) has been meeting this challenge for several years by forming partnerships with educational institutions all over Brazil, implementing programs using Teleconferencing, Videoconferencing and Internet-based distance education programs, making it possible for teachers to avoid leaving their posts to learn. Although the subjects taught via the LED are varied, they are mainly related to information technology and education, according to each institution's specific needs and budget.

==Brazil virtual university==

http://www.rnp.br/en/news/2000/not-000201_en.html

==References==

some extra info on Brazil education system:
http://www.wwwords.co.uk/pdf/viewpdf.asp?j=elea&vol=3&issue=4&year=2006&article=9_Reifschneider_ELEA_3_4_web&id=134.58.253.57

http://www.usdla.org/html/journal/DEC02_Issue/article05.html

http://www.tfhe.net/resources/higher_edu_brazil.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Brazil

http://www.isep.org/students/placed/handbook_education.asp?country=7

Brazil

2008-09-03T12:38:30Z

SandisZuciks: /* Table 1. Institutions of Higher Education in Brazil in 2004 */

==Brazil in nutshell==

[[Image:Brazil-map.gif|left|400mp]]
Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is a country in South America. It is the fifth largest country by geographical area, the fifth most populous country, and the fourth most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of over 7,491 kilometers (4,655 mi). It is bordered on the north by Venezuela, Suriname, Guyana and the overseas department of French Guiana; on the northwest by Colombia; on the west by Bolivia and Peru; on the southwest by Argentina and Paraguay and on the south by Uruguay. Numerous archipelagos are part of the Brazilian territory, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz.

Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until its independence in 1822. Initially independent as the Brazilian Empire, the country has been a republic since 1889, even though its bicameral legislature (now called Congress) dates back to 1824, when the first constitution was ratified. Its current Constitution defines Brazil as a Federal Republic. The Federation is formed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities.

Brazil is the world's tenth largest economy at market exchange rates and the ninth largest in purchasing power. Economic reforms have given the country new international projection. It is a founding member of the United Nations and of the Union of South American Nations. A predominantly Roman Catholic, Portuguese-speaking and multiethnic society, Brazil is also home to a diversity of wildlife, natural environments, and extensive natural resources in a variety of protected habitats.

==Brazilian education policy==

Education in Brazil is regulated by the Federal Government, through the Ministry of Education, which defines the guiding principles for the organization of educational programs. Local governments are responsible for establishing state and city educational programsfollowing the guidelines and using the funding supplied by the Federal Government. Brazilian children must attend school a minimum of 9 years, however the schooling is usually inadequate.

The 1988 Brazilian Constitution states that "education" is "a right for all, a duty of the State and of the family, and is to be promoted with the collaboration of society, with the objective of fully developing the person, preparing the individual for the exercise of citizenship and qualifying him/her for work".

The National Educational Bases and Guidelines Law enacted in 1961 says that, "national education, inspired in the principles of freedom and in the ideals of human solidarity, has the purpose of:

*understanding individual rights and responsibilities, as well as those of citizens, the State and other community groups;
*respecting man's dignity and fundamental freedoms;
*strengthening national unity and international solidarity;
*integral development of the human personality and his/her participation in the work towards common welfare;
*preparing individuals and society to master scientific and technological resources which will allow the use existing possibilities to common welfare;
*protecting, disseminating and expanding cultural heritage;
*condemning any unequal treatment resulting from philosophical, political or religious belief, as well as any social classes or racial prejudices.

==Higher Education==
===Table 1. Institutions of Higher Education in Brazil in 2004===
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:11px;"
|-valign="top" style="background: #ECE5B6;"
!width=""|''' '''
!width=""|''' '''
!width=""|'''Universities'''
!width=""|'''University centers'''
!width=""|'''Integrated colleges '''
!width=""|'''Colleges, Schools, Institutes'''
!width=""|'''CET/FaT*'''

|-valign="top"
| '''Brazil'''|| 2013 || 169 || 107 || 119 || 1474 || 144
|-valign="top"
| '''Public'''|| 224 || 83 || 3 || 3 || 86 || 49
|-valign="top"
| Public- Federal|| 87 || 46 || 1 || - || 6 || 34
|-valign="top"
| Public- State|| 75 || 32 || - || - || 28 || 15
|-valign="top"
| Public- Municipal|| 62 || 5 || 2 || 3 || 52 || -
|-valign="top"
| '''Private''' || 1789 || 86 || 104 || 116 || 1388 || 95
|-valign="top"
| Private - Private || 1401 || 26 || 60 ||97 || 1125 || 93
|-valign="top"
| Private - Community|| 388 || 60 || 44 || 19 || 263 || 2
|}

*CET/FaT Centers for Technological Education and Collages of Technology (INEP, 2004b).

===Summary of Higher Education===

Brazil has put significant resources into developing its higher education system over the past three decades. As a result, a system has evolved in which some institutions have achieved recognizable excellence in teaching and research, while, more generally, the majority of institutions have struggled to provide relevant, quality education at reasonable cost. Looked at in isolation, certain parts of the system are sound and productive. Taken as a whole, the system still has a number of large challenges to overcome.

About 15% of the age cohort is enrolled in higher education. This is quite low compared to other countries in the region (Argentina 36%; Chile 32%; Uruguay 30%; Venezuela, R.B. 29% [World Development Indicators 2001]) and to the OECD country average of 52% (OECD, 2001). Simply doubling the number of spaces offered, however, will not double the rate of coverage, because a demographic bulge of young Brazilians is reaching university age. Over the past 15 years, growth in private provision of higher education was roughly equal to the moderate growth of the university-age cohort, but now large absolute increases in enrollments would be needed simply to maintain the current rate of coverage. In addition, graduation rates from secondary schools are rising sharply and more older, working Brazilians are seeking tertiary degrees. In short, a larger percentage of a growing number of Brazilians are demanding higher education, and the system cannot keep pace with this demand under existing conditions.

Cost per student in public institutions, roughly R$14,000 per year in the federal system, is on par with OECD country averages while quality is not. Rigidities in funding and regulation create strong disincentives for cost-efficiency or quality. Public universities have been funded on the basis of input. Federal policy toward higher education, until recently, did not attempt to control costs or correlate funding to productivity. Other legislation and regulations, outside the control or influence of MEC, created built-in cost increases that did not improve the access, quality, or relevance of the education. University rectors have traditionally concerned themselves more with obtaining resources from the federal government than with managing the resources effectively within their institutions.

With a few notable exceptions, the quality of instruction and the relevance of the curriculum are below desirable standards. Historically, the Brazilian system - like those of continental Europe - is oriented to provide professional training rather than general or interdisciplinary education. Holders of a first university degree (graduação) are licensed to practice their profession by virtue of their diplomas. Such systems have been successful, productive, and of high quality under a variety of conditions. However, in Brazil, thanks largely to restrictive labor market regulation, the influence of professional associations in setting the curricula and the numbers of courses/places have served to limit the supply of professional labor, rather than to satisfy the demands of the labor market. Furthermore, in the Brazilian public system, a lack of coherence in research, teaching, and career advancement policies in public institutions has often led to a concentration of professors doing specialized research at the expense of undergraduate teaching. By contrast, many private institutions are driven by profit, and therefore do not undertake any research or pay salaries necessary to attract and retain high-quality professors.

The public system, which includes many, but not all of the country's finest institutions, provides higher quality education than the private sector, charges no tuition, and limits the number of places. Competition for admittance is fierce, and wealthy students do best because they can afford elite private high schools and special preparation courses for the entrance exams. Estimates on enrollment by income quintile show that two thirds of students are from the highest income quintile, while only about 5% are from the two lowest. It is a generally recognized problem that students from lower and lower middle class backgrounds have greater difficulty gaining entrance to the free, public system. If these individuals study at all, they are more likely to be in the private system, where they must pay tuition. Some financial assistance is available from the government and the institutions themselves, but it does not sufficiently address the needs of the students in the system, and much less the potential students who are excluded due to inability to pay.

Clearly, many important changes are underway within the system. The challenge is to focus attention on those that will promote the greatest progress in equitable access, quality, relevance, and efficiency. With this in mind, it is recommended the following steps. First, with respect to access: (a) the trend towards diversification through new instruments, such as sequential courses, and new institutional definitions (such as university centers) should continue; (b) the amount of targeted financial assistance for poor students should be increased; and (c) five and ten year enrollment increase targets should be identified, and progress toward improved coverage should be monitored closely. Additionally, the Government of Brazil has several policy options for increasing access to tertiary education that it may consider in the future. These include: i) increasing government and private funding of public institutions; in light of the current economic situation in Brazil, and the government's relatively high spending for higher education, it is unlikely that a large infusion of public funds for higher education is forthcoming. However, the addition of private resources could lead to an increased supply of places to the extent that the additional resources are used to educate and train students rather than to pay for administrative costs or research; ii) reducing costs per student at public institutions could be achieved in any number of ways and is best dealt with at the institutional level; and iii) charging tuition at public universities. This option is being used increasingly around the world as a means to maintain or increase institutional budgets. When combined with well thought out student aid schemes, this could have a positive impact on equity access.

===Higher Education structure===

Secondary education is mandatory for those wishing to pursue higher education. In addition, students must pass a competitive entrance examination (known as vestibular) for their specific course of study. The number of candidates per available place in the freshman class may be in excess of 30 or 40 to one in the most competitive courses at the top public universities. In some particular courses with small number of vacancies, this number can be as high as 200.

Higher education in Brazil, as in many nations, can be divided into both undergraduate and graduate work. In addition to providing education, Universities promote research and provide stand-alone classes to the community.

Higher education begins with undergraduate or sequential courses, which may offer different specialization choices such as academic or vocational education. Depending on choice, students may improve their educational background with postgraduate courses Stricto Sensu or Lato Sensu. Higher education has three bases: teaching, research and extension, each with their own specific contribution to make to a particular course. Diplomas and certificates are proof of having passed through higher education.

The standard Brazilian undergraduate bachelor's degree (graduação) is awarded in most fields of arts, humanities, social sciences, mathematical sciences, or natural sciences, and normally requires 4 years of post-secondary studies at a certified university. Students interested in teaching careers at secondary schools can take an additional year in lecturing courses (licenciatura). Five-year degrees are awarded in the so-called professional careers such as architecture, engineering, veterinary medicine, and law. The undergraduate degree in medicine requires in turn six years of full-time post-secondary studies. Residência, a two-to-five years internship in a teaching hospital is not required, but it is pursued by many professionals, especially those who wish to specialize in a given area.

Students who hold a four-year bachelor's degree or a five-year professional diploma are qualified for admission into graduate school (pós-graduação). Graduate master's degrees are normally awarded following the completion of a two-year program requiring satisfactory performance in a minimum number of advanced graduate courses (typically between five and eight classes), plus the submission by the degree candidate of a master's thesis (dissertação de mestrado) that is examined by an oral panel of at least three faculty members, including at least one external examiner. Doctoral degrees on the other hand normally require four years of full-time studies during which the degree candidate is required to complete further advanced graduate coursework, pass a doctoral qualifying exam, and submit an extensive doctoral dissertation (tese de doutorado) that must represent an original and relevant contribution to current knowledge in the field of study to which the dissertation topic belongs. The doctoral dissertation is examined in a final public oral exam administered by a panel of at least five faculty members, two of whom must be external examiners. Results from the dissertation are normally expected to be published in peer-reviewed journals, proceedings of international conferences, and/or in the form of books/book chapters.

===Problems in Higher education system===

The main problems the Brazilian higher education system is facing at present are the following:

1. Access: in spite of the rapid expansion during the last ten years, the system is still small compared with those of other countries in Latin America. Also, most students in higher education come from medium- and high-income groups. The poorest sections of the population can only enter higher education today as a result of the great expansion at secondary level.

2. Finance: the new sections of the population trying to enter higher education lack sufficient financial backing. Places in the free public institutions are very restricted and the cost of private education is very high in terms of the incomes of these new groups aspiring to enter higher education.

3. Quality: the quality of higher education institutions in Brazil is very variable. Alongside institutions with international reputations we find many with low levels of teaching and little encouragement to undertake research.

4. Efficiency: public institutions - usually of better quality than the rest - suffer great problems of inefficiency in the use of public resources, resulting in a relatively small number of students attending them in terms of the amount of funds invested.

5. Curricular structure unrelated to the needs of the labour market: the content of higher education courses in Brazil lacks the flexibility to adapt to the needs of the labour market.

6. Little connection with the productive sector: in general, technological research and development is carried out in universities with little connection with the productive sector.

===Expansion and access to Higher Education===

Higher education enrolments more than doubled in the last ten years. In spite of this significant growth, the gross rate of enrolments at the higher level in Brazil is very small when compared to international levels, even when compared to some of other comparable countries in Latin America. Nevertheless, there is a reasonable consensus of opinion on the need to settle on the most effective way to provide a more lasting solution to the problems of access and equity in higher education. In the 1980s growth in enrolments did not even keep up with population growth.

Between 1980 and 1994 expansion of higher education was quite restricted: growth of only 20% in enrolments; reduction of 3.5% in the number of higher education institutions and 26% growth in the number of courses. In 1994, total enrolments on undergraduate courses were 1.7 million. The higher education system at that time consisted of 851 institutions. There has been a significant increase in enrolments and completions of higher education courses in Brazil after 1995.

The growth in supply of courses in recent years has being greater in towns in the interior than in state capitals. That an ‘interiorization’ of higher education is occurring because of an appreciable growth in the numbers of courses, so that many towns which previously had no HEI now have one. This has brought great benefits to students who had been excluded on a regional basis. Many who had not been able to move to the state capital to study at the higher level and now have the chance to do so in their hometown.

Socio-economic data concerning students in Brazilian higher education institutions show the marked presence of those coming from social groups with average and high incomes. It can even be stated that the supply of places is basically a response to the demand for higher education that these classes have created. With the ever-growing demand and a far greater number of students able and desiring to enter higher education, private institutions have had ample room to increase their supply.

The growing expansion of secondary education and the increase in the number of students leaving this level of education suggests that there is greater pressure for obtaining chances of education at a higher level coming precisely from the poorer classes in society. The growth in supply of courses in recent years has been greater in the poorest states and in towns in the interior than in the southwest or south and state capitals. Projections concerning access to higher education indicate the growth among students from lower-income families in the total numbers of new entrants to higher education. This is happening due to the increased flow of students coming from public secondary education and the increasing demand for better-qualified personnel with university degrees for jobs which previously did not require them.

One of the main areas for public policy in relation to access is the design of the means of financing studies and maintaining lower-income students in the system. The policies of increasing rates of schooling at higher level with improved quality at this level, especially in public institutions, increasing the number of places on evening courses, the broad re-design of the means of financing studies and maintaining lower-income students in the system, are some of the possible initiatives being put into place. The country has experienced several mechanisms for increasing access to higher education, including student loans programmes, scholarships in private institution in exchange of tax exemption and, quotas. The policy of quotas, which is very controversial, appears in this context as a transitional strategy. It is also important to emphasize that the expansion of evening classes in the public sector is still insufficient to meet the potential demand from students who are finishing their public secondary education during the evening ‘shift’. A great part of this potential demand has been met by the private sector. In Brazil, 68% of private enrolments are for the evening period, in which most courses do not require full-time attendance.

===Information society strategy period===

Most efforts in technological development and innovation have been concentrated in certain of Brazil’s universities and not in the business world. Research and development is a strength of higher education of Brazil. Today, almost all states have federal universities, and foundations to encourage research. However, these institutions do not have the same kind of autonomy, especially in terms of continuous, regular and guaranteed financing.

On the other side, Brazil’s scientific and technological development in the area of business is still at an initial stage. Brazilian companies have been late in incorporating and developing technology. It is also a consequence of the weakness of business sector's own capacity of research. On top of that, the collaboration between academia and industries is also very insufficient taking into account the needs of Brazilian development. Besides the poor performance of the Brazilian companies in relation to innovation, there is some prejudice that exist among Brazilian scholars in relation to the cooperation with the private sector.

Brazil shows a paradox: on the one hand, there is in the business sphere a low capacity for absorbing human resources into Science, Technology and Innovation (S&T&I); on the other hand, the system of training these resources has shown a large increase in supply especially in terms of postgraduate programmes. In the last two decades, Brazil’s scientific capacity has grown systematically year by year at an increasingly faster rate. The ranking of countries, according to their participation in world scientific production – Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) of the National Science Indicators (NSI) – is evidence of Brazil’s progress in this field. In 1981, Brazil was in 26th place; in 2001, it already occupied a worthy 18th position. On the other side, from 2000 to 2003 a slow growth was observed in technological development and innovation in Brazilian industry.

The fact that national research being concentrated in universities - in particular at the postgraduate level - makes it very dependent on the training of those with master’s and doctoral degrees. In this context, the importance of new strategies to bring the network of universities together with the world of business becomes more important. An important step in this direction was taken by the recently voted and approved Innovation Law. New means of finance – Sector Funds – and identification of priority sectors in industrial policy, as well as the formulation of the post graduate development plan by CAPES, indicates the desire to continue these trends.

It may be said that a move towards innovation and a clearer preparation for future expansion in R & D activities within growing companies is beginning to be developed recently. There are, however, obstacles hindering this development from proceeding more rapidly. These obstacles are mainly due to organizational inflexibility, problems in the marketplace and the absence of systemic synergy. However, what is most noticeable in the two periods studied is that over 30% of companies complain of lack of qualified personnel. This shows that, even where there is clear difficulty in absorbing manpower, there are questions of quality that have to be overcome.

==Education reform==
An important part of the Brazilian education reform began in 1995 with the creation of a federal department called the "Secretary of Distance Education" (SEED). The goal of SEED is to use information and communication technologies toward supporting and improving the quality and dissemination of education in this country with a population of 170 million people spread across nearly 1/2 of South America's land mass. Under SEED's "Proinfo" program, computers and access to the internet were issued to all public schools in Brazil, under the condition that the schools present an appropriate pedagogical strategy. To this end, each municipal government was allocated funding to establish a "Nucleus of Educational Technology" (NTE), making computer labs and networks available for teachers, and offering educational programs for teacher training.

Another important advance occurred in 1997, when the Brazilian Ministry of Education decreed that all K-12 school teachers have an undergraduate degree, and all university teachers a masters degree, by the year 2006. This meant that at least 50% of the Brazilian teachers and professors would have to upgrade their skills in a relatively short time, resulting in a huge and widespread demand for teacher training, as well as need to create solutions for efficient and effective teacher education.

The Distance Education Laboratory (LED) of the Federal University of Santa Catarina (South Brazil) has been meeting this challenge for several years by forming partnerships with educational institutions all over Brazil, implementing programs using Teleconferencing, Videoconferencing and Internet-based distance education programs, making it possible for teachers to avoid leaving their posts to learn. Although the subjects taught via the LED are varied, they are mainly related to information technology and education, according to each institution's specific needs and budget.

==Brazil virtual university==

http://www.rnp.br/en/news/2000/not-000201_en.html

==References==

some extra info on Brazil education system:
http://www.wwwords.co.uk/pdf/viewpdf.asp?j=elea&vol=3&issue=4&year=2006&article=9_Reifschneider_ELEA_3_4_web&id=134.58.253.57

http://www.usdla.org/html/journal/DEC02_Issue/article05.html

http://www.tfhe.net/resources/higher_edu_brazil.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Brazil

http://www.isep.org/students/placed/handbook_education.asp?country=7

Brazil

2008-09-03T12:37:44Z

SandisZuciks: /* Table 1. Institutions of Higher Education in Brazil in 2004 */

==Brazil in nutshell==

[[Image:Brazil-map.gif|left|400mp]]
Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is a country in South America. It is the fifth largest country by geographical area, the fifth most populous country, and the fourth most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of over 7,491 kilometers (4,655 mi). It is bordered on the north by Venezuela, Suriname, Guyana and the overseas department of French Guiana; on the northwest by Colombia; on the west by Bolivia and Peru; on the southwest by Argentina and Paraguay and on the south by Uruguay. Numerous archipelagos are part of the Brazilian territory, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz.

Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until its independence in 1822. Initially independent as the Brazilian Empire, the country has been a republic since 1889, even though its bicameral legislature (now called Congress) dates back to 1824, when the first constitution was ratified. Its current Constitution defines Brazil as a Federal Republic. The Federation is formed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities.

Brazil is the world's tenth largest economy at market exchange rates and the ninth largest in purchasing power. Economic reforms have given the country new international projection. It is a founding member of the United Nations and of the Union of South American Nations. A predominantly Roman Catholic, Portuguese-speaking and multiethnic society, Brazil is also home to a diversity of wildlife, natural environments, and extensive natural resources in a variety of protected habitats.

==Brazilian education policy==

Education in Brazil is regulated by the Federal Government, through the Ministry of Education, which defines the guiding principles for the organization of educational programs. Local governments are responsible for establishing state and city educational programsfollowing the guidelines and using the funding supplied by the Federal Government. Brazilian children must attend school a minimum of 9 years, however the schooling is usually inadequate.

The 1988 Brazilian Constitution states that "education" is "a right for all, a duty of the State and of the family, and is to be promoted with the collaboration of society, with the objective of fully developing the person, preparing the individual for the exercise of citizenship and qualifying him/her for work".

The National Educational Bases and Guidelines Law enacted in 1961 says that, "national education, inspired in the principles of freedom and in the ideals of human solidarity, has the purpose of:

*understanding individual rights and responsibilities, as well as those of citizens, the State and other community groups;
*respecting man's dignity and fundamental freedoms;
*strengthening national unity and international solidarity;
*integral development of the human personality and his/her participation in the work towards common welfare;
*preparing individuals and society to master scientific and technological resources which will allow the use existing possibilities to common welfare;
*protecting, disseminating and expanding cultural heritage;
*condemning any unequal treatment resulting from philosophical, political or religious belief, as well as any social classes or racial prejudices.

==Higher Education==
===Table 1. Institutions of Higher Education in Brazil in 2004===
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:11px;"
|-valign="top" style="background: #ECE5B6;"
!width=""|''' '''
!width=""|''' '''
!width=""|'''Universities'''
!width=""|'''University centers'''
!width=""|'''Integrated colleges '''
!width=""|'''Colleges, Schools, Institutes'''
!width=""|'''CET/FaT*'''

|-valign="top"
| Brazil|| 2013 || 169 || 107 || 119 || 1474 || 144
|-valign="top"
| Public|| 224 || 83 || 3 || 3 || 86 || 49
|-valign="top"
| Public- Federal|| 87 || 46 || 1 || - || 6 || 34
|-valign="top"
| Public- State|| 75 || 32 || - || - || 28 || 15
|-valign="top"
| Public- Municipal|| 62 || 5 || 2 || 3 || 52 || -
|-valign="top"
| Private || 1789 || 86 || 104 || 116 || 1388 || 95
|-valign="top"
| Private - Private || 1401 || 26 || 60 ||97 || 1125 || 93
|-valign="top"
| Private - Community|| 388 || 60 || 44 || 19 || 263 || 2
|}

*CET/FaT Centers for Technological Education and Collages of Technology (INEP, 2004b).

===Summary of Higher Education===

Brazil has put significant resources into developing its higher education system over the past three decades. As a result, a system has evolved in which some institutions have achieved recognizable excellence in teaching and research, while, more generally, the majority of institutions have struggled to provide relevant, quality education at reasonable cost. Looked at in isolation, certain parts of the system are sound and productive. Taken as a whole, the system still has a number of large challenges to overcome.

About 15% of the age cohort is enrolled in higher education. This is quite low compared to other countries in the region (Argentina 36%; Chile 32%; Uruguay 30%; Venezuela, R.B. 29% [World Development Indicators 2001]) and to the OECD country average of 52% (OECD, 2001). Simply doubling the number of spaces offered, however, will not double the rate of coverage, because a demographic bulge of young Brazilians is reaching university age. Over the past 15 years, growth in private provision of higher education was roughly equal to the moderate growth of the university-age cohort, but now large absolute increases in enrollments would be needed simply to maintain the current rate of coverage. In addition, graduation rates from secondary schools are rising sharply and more older, working Brazilians are seeking tertiary degrees. In short, a larger percentage of a growing number of Brazilians are demanding higher education, and the system cannot keep pace with this demand under existing conditions.

Cost per student in public institutions, roughly R$14,000 per year in the federal system, is on par with OECD country averages while quality is not. Rigidities in funding and regulation create strong disincentives for cost-efficiency or quality. Public universities have been funded on the basis of input. Federal policy toward higher education, until recently, did not attempt to control costs or correlate funding to productivity. Other legislation and regulations, outside the control or influence of MEC, created built-in cost increases that did not improve the access, quality, or relevance of the education. University rectors have traditionally concerned themselves more with obtaining resources from the federal government than with managing the resources effectively within their institutions.

With a few notable exceptions, the quality of instruction and the relevance of the curriculum are below desirable standards. Historically, the Brazilian system - like those of continental Europe - is oriented to provide professional training rather than general or interdisciplinary education. Holders of a first university degree (graduação) are licensed to practice their profession by virtue of their diplomas. Such systems have been successful, productive, and of high quality under a variety of conditions. However, in Brazil, thanks largely to restrictive labor market regulation, the influence of professional associations in setting the curricula and the numbers of courses/places have served to limit the supply of professional labor, rather than to satisfy the demands of the labor market. Furthermore, in the Brazilian public system, a lack of coherence in research, teaching, and career advancement policies in public institutions has often led to a concentration of professors doing specialized research at the expense of undergraduate teaching. By contrast, many private institutions are driven by profit, and therefore do not undertake any research or pay salaries necessary to attract and retain high-quality professors.

The public system, which includes many, but not all of the country's finest institutions, provides higher quality education than the private sector, charges no tuition, and limits the number of places. Competition for admittance is fierce, and wealthy students do best because they can afford elite private high schools and special preparation courses for the entrance exams. Estimates on enrollment by income quintile show that two thirds of students are from the highest income quintile, while only about 5% are from the two lowest. It is a generally recognized problem that students from lower and lower middle class backgrounds have greater difficulty gaining entrance to the free, public system. If these individuals study at all, they are more likely to be in the private system, where they must pay tuition. Some financial assistance is available from the government and the institutions themselves, but it does not sufficiently address the needs of the students in the system, and much less the potential students who are excluded due to inability to pay.

Clearly, many important changes are underway within the system. The challenge is to focus attention on those that will promote the greatest progress in equitable access, quality, relevance, and efficiency. With this in mind, it is recommended the following steps. First, with respect to access: (a) the trend towards diversification through new instruments, such as sequential courses, and new institutional definitions (such as university centers) should continue; (b) the amount of targeted financial assistance for poor students should be increased; and (c) five and ten year enrollment increase targets should be identified, and progress toward improved coverage should be monitored closely. Additionally, the Government of Brazil has several policy options for increasing access to tertiary education that it may consider in the future. These include: i) increasing government and private funding of public institutions; in light of the current economic situation in Brazil, and the government's relatively high spending for higher education, it is unlikely that a large infusion of public funds for higher education is forthcoming. However, the addition of private resources could lead to an increased supply of places to the extent that the additional resources are used to educate and train students rather than to pay for administrative costs or research; ii) reducing costs per student at public institutions could be achieved in any number of ways and is best dealt with at the institutional level; and iii) charging tuition at public universities. This option is being used increasingly around the world as a means to maintain or increase institutional budgets. When combined with well thought out student aid schemes, this could have a positive impact on equity access.

===Higher Education structure===

Secondary education is mandatory for those wishing to pursue higher education. In addition, students must pass a competitive entrance examination (known as vestibular) for their specific course of study. The number of candidates per available place in the freshman class may be in excess of 30 or 40 to one in the most competitive courses at the top public universities. In some particular courses with small number of vacancies, this number can be as high as 200.

Higher education in Brazil, as in many nations, can be divided into both undergraduate and graduate work. In addition to providing education, Universities promote research and provide stand-alone classes to the community.

Higher education begins with undergraduate or sequential courses, which may offer different specialization choices such as academic or vocational education. Depending on choice, students may improve their educational background with postgraduate courses Stricto Sensu or Lato Sensu. Higher education has three bases: teaching, research and extension, each with their own specific contribution to make to a particular course. Diplomas and certificates are proof of having passed through higher education.

The standard Brazilian undergraduate bachelor's degree (graduação) is awarded in most fields of arts, humanities, social sciences, mathematical sciences, or natural sciences, and normally requires 4 years of post-secondary studies at a certified university. Students interested in teaching careers at secondary schools can take an additional year in lecturing courses (licenciatura). Five-year degrees are awarded in the so-called professional careers such as architecture, engineering, veterinary medicine, and law. The undergraduate degree in medicine requires in turn six years of full-time post-secondary studies. Residência, a two-to-five years internship in a teaching hospital is not required, but it is pursued by many professionals, especially those who wish to specialize in a given area.

Students who hold a four-year bachelor's degree or a five-year professional diploma are qualified for admission into graduate school (pós-graduação). Graduate master's degrees are normally awarded following the completion of a two-year program requiring satisfactory performance in a minimum number of advanced graduate courses (typically between five and eight classes), plus the submission by the degree candidate of a master's thesis (dissertação de mestrado) that is examined by an oral panel of at least three faculty members, including at least one external examiner. Doctoral degrees on the other hand normally require four years of full-time studies during which the degree candidate is required to complete further advanced graduate coursework, pass a doctoral qualifying exam, and submit an extensive doctoral dissertation (tese de doutorado) that must represent an original and relevant contribution to current knowledge in the field of study to which the dissertation topic belongs. The doctoral dissertation is examined in a final public oral exam administered by a panel of at least five faculty members, two of whom must be external examiners. Results from the dissertation are normally expected to be published in peer-reviewed journals, proceedings of international conferences, and/or in the form of books/book chapters.

===Problems in Higher education system===

The main problems the Brazilian higher education system is facing at present are the following:

1. Access: in spite of the rapid expansion during the last ten years, the system is still small compared with those of other countries in Latin America. Also, most students in higher education come from medium- and high-income groups. The poorest sections of the population can only enter higher education today as a result of the great expansion at secondary level.

2. Finance: the new sections of the population trying to enter higher education lack sufficient financial backing. Places in the free public institutions are very restricted and the cost of private education is very high in terms of the incomes of these new groups aspiring to enter higher education.

3. Quality: the quality of higher education institutions in Brazil is very variable. Alongside institutions with international reputations we find many with low levels of teaching and little encouragement to undertake research.

4. Efficiency: public institutions - usually of better quality than the rest - suffer great problems of inefficiency in the use of public resources, resulting in a relatively small number of students attending them in terms of the amount of funds invested.

5. Curricular structure unrelated to the needs of the labour market: the content of higher education courses in Brazil lacks the flexibility to adapt to the needs of the labour market.

6. Little connection with the productive sector: in general, technological research and development is carried out in universities with little connection with the productive sector.

===Expansion and access to Higher Education===

Higher education enrolments more than doubled in the last ten years. In spite of this significant growth, the gross rate of enrolments at the higher level in Brazil is very small when compared to international levels, even when compared to some of other comparable countries in Latin America. Nevertheless, there is a reasonable consensus of opinion on the need to settle on the most effective way to provide a more lasting solution to the problems of access and equity in higher education. In the 1980s growth in enrolments did not even keep up with population growth.

Between 1980 and 1994 expansion of higher education was quite restricted: growth of only 20% in enrolments; reduction of 3.5% in the number of higher education institutions and 26% growth in the number of courses. In 1994, total enrolments on undergraduate courses were 1.7 million. The higher education system at that time consisted of 851 institutions. There has been a significant increase in enrolments and completions of higher education courses in Brazil after 1995.

The growth in supply of courses in recent years has being greater in towns in the interior than in state capitals. That an ‘interiorization’ of higher education is occurring because of an appreciable growth in the numbers of courses, so that many towns which previously had no HEI now have one. This has brought great benefits to students who had been excluded on a regional basis. Many who had not been able to move to the state capital to study at the higher level and now have the chance to do so in their hometown.

Socio-economic data concerning students in Brazilian higher education institutions show the marked presence of those coming from social groups with average and high incomes. It can even be stated that the supply of places is basically a response to the demand for higher education that these classes have created. With the ever-growing demand and a far greater number of students able and desiring to enter higher education, private institutions have had ample room to increase their supply.

The growing expansion of secondary education and the increase in the number of students leaving this level of education suggests that there is greater pressure for obtaining chances of education at a higher level coming precisely from the poorer classes in society. The growth in supply of courses in recent years has been greater in the poorest states and in towns in the interior than in the southwest or south and state capitals. Projections concerning access to higher education indicate the growth among students from lower-income families in the total numbers of new entrants to higher education. This is happening due to the increased flow of students coming from public secondary education and the increasing demand for better-qualified personnel with university degrees for jobs which previously did not require them.

One of the main areas for public policy in relation to access is the design of the means of financing studies and maintaining lower-income students in the system. The policies of increasing rates of schooling at higher level with improved quality at this level, especially in public institutions, increasing the number of places on evening courses, the broad re-design of the means of financing studies and maintaining lower-income students in the system, are some of the possible initiatives being put into place. The country has experienced several mechanisms for increasing access to higher education, including student loans programmes, scholarships in private institution in exchange of tax exemption and, quotas. The policy of quotas, which is very controversial, appears in this context as a transitional strategy. It is also important to emphasize that the expansion of evening classes in the public sector is still insufficient to meet the potential demand from students who are finishing their public secondary education during the evening ‘shift’. A great part of this potential demand has been met by the private sector. In Brazil, 68% of private enrolments are for the evening period, in which most courses do not require full-time attendance.

===Information society strategy period===

Most efforts in technological development and innovation have been concentrated in certain of Brazil’s universities and not in the business world. Research and development is a strength of higher education of Brazil. Today, almost all states have federal universities, and foundations to encourage research. However, these institutions do not have the same kind of autonomy, especially in terms of continuous, regular and guaranteed financing.

On the other side, Brazil’s scientific and technological development in the area of business is still at an initial stage. Brazilian companies have been late in incorporating and developing technology. It is also a consequence of the weakness of business sector's own capacity of research. On top of that, the collaboration between academia and industries is also very insufficient taking into account the needs of Brazilian development. Besides the poor performance of the Brazilian companies in relation to innovation, there is some prejudice that exist among Brazilian scholars in relation to the cooperation with the private sector.

Brazil shows a paradox: on the one hand, there is in the business sphere a low capacity for absorbing human resources into Science, Technology and Innovation (S&T&I); on the other hand, the system of training these resources has shown a large increase in supply especially in terms of postgraduate programmes. In the last two decades, Brazil’s scientific capacity has grown systematically year by year at an increasingly faster rate. The ranking of countries, according to their participation in world scientific production – Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) of the National Science Indicators (NSI) – is evidence of Brazil’s progress in this field. In 1981, Brazil was in 26th place; in 2001, it already occupied a worthy 18th position. On the other side, from 2000 to 2003 a slow growth was observed in technological development and innovation in Brazilian industry.

The fact that national research being concentrated in universities - in particular at the postgraduate level - makes it very dependent on the training of those with master’s and doctoral degrees. In this context, the importance of new strategies to bring the network of universities together with the world of business becomes more important. An important step in this direction was taken by the recently voted and approved Innovation Law. New means of finance – Sector Funds – and identification of priority sectors in industrial policy, as well as the formulation of the post graduate development plan by CAPES, indicates the desire to continue these trends.

It may be said that a move towards innovation and a clearer preparation for future expansion in R & D activities within growing companies is beginning to be developed recently. There are, however, obstacles hindering this development from proceeding more rapidly. These obstacles are mainly due to organizational inflexibility, problems in the marketplace and the absence of systemic synergy. However, what is most noticeable in the two periods studied is that over 30% of companies complain of lack of qualified personnel. This shows that, even where there is clear difficulty in absorbing manpower, there are questions of quality that have to be overcome.

==Education reform==
An important part of the Brazilian education reform began in 1995 with the creation of a federal department called the "Secretary of Distance Education" (SEED). The goal of SEED is to use information and communication technologies toward supporting and improving the quality and dissemination of education in this country with a population of 170 million people spread across nearly 1/2 of South America's land mass. Under SEED's "Proinfo" program, computers and access to the internet were issued to all public schools in Brazil, under the condition that the schools present an appropriate pedagogical strategy. To this end, each municipal government was allocated funding to establish a "Nucleus of Educational Technology" (NTE), making computer labs and networks available for teachers, and offering educational programs for teacher training.

Another important advance occurred in 1997, when the Brazilian Ministry of Education decreed that all K-12 school teachers have an undergraduate degree, and all university teachers a masters degree, by the year 2006. This meant that at least 50% of the Brazilian teachers and professors would have to upgrade their skills in a relatively short time, resulting in a huge and widespread demand for teacher training, as well as need to create solutions for efficient and effective teacher education.

The Distance Education Laboratory (LED) of the Federal University of Santa Catarina (South Brazil) has been meeting this challenge for several years by forming partnerships with educational institutions all over Brazil, implementing programs using Teleconferencing, Videoconferencing and Internet-based distance education programs, making it possible for teachers to avoid leaving their posts to learn. Although the subjects taught via the LED are varied, they are mainly related to information technology and education, according to each institution's specific needs and budget.

==Brazil virtual university==

http://www.rnp.br/en/news/2000/not-000201_en.html

==References==

some extra info on Brazil education system:
http://www.wwwords.co.uk/pdf/viewpdf.asp?j=elea&vol=3&issue=4&year=2006&article=9_Reifschneider_ELEA_3_4_web&id=134.58.253.57

http://www.usdla.org/html/journal/DEC02_Issue/article05.html

http://www.tfhe.net/resources/higher_edu_brazil.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Brazil

http://www.isep.org/students/placed/handbook_education.asp?country=7

Brazil

2008-09-03T12:34:26Z

SandisZuciks: /* Higher Education */

==Brazil in nutshell==

[[Image:Brazil-map.gif|left|400mp]]
Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is a country in South America. It is the fifth largest country by geographical area, the fifth most populous country, and the fourth most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of over 7,491 kilometers (4,655 mi). It is bordered on the north by Venezuela, Suriname, Guyana and the overseas department of French Guiana; on the northwest by Colombia; on the west by Bolivia and Peru; on the southwest by Argentina and Paraguay and on the south by Uruguay. Numerous archipelagos are part of the Brazilian territory, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz.

Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until its independence in 1822. Initially independent as the Brazilian Empire, the country has been a republic since 1889, even though its bicameral legislature (now called Congress) dates back to 1824, when the first constitution was ratified. Its current Constitution defines Brazil as a Federal Republic. The Federation is formed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities.

Brazil is the world's tenth largest economy at market exchange rates and the ninth largest in purchasing power. Economic reforms have given the country new international projection. It is a founding member of the United Nations and of the Union of South American Nations. A predominantly Roman Catholic, Portuguese-speaking and multiethnic society, Brazil is also home to a diversity of wildlife, natural environments, and extensive natural resources in a variety of protected habitats.

==Brazilian education policy==

Education in Brazil is regulated by the Federal Government, through the Ministry of Education, which defines the guiding principles for the organization of educational programs. Local governments are responsible for establishing state and city educational programsfollowing the guidelines and using the funding supplied by the Federal Government. Brazilian children must attend school a minimum of 9 years, however the schooling is usually inadequate.

The 1988 Brazilian Constitution states that "education" is "a right for all, a duty of the State and of the family, and is to be promoted with the collaboration of society, with the objective of fully developing the person, preparing the individual for the exercise of citizenship and qualifying him/her for work".

The National Educational Bases and Guidelines Law enacted in 1961 says that, "national education, inspired in the principles of freedom and in the ideals of human solidarity, has the purpose of:

*understanding individual rights and responsibilities, as well as those of citizens, the State and other community groups;
*respecting man's dignity and fundamental freedoms;
*strengthening national unity and international solidarity;
*integral development of the human personality and his/her participation in the work towards common welfare;
*preparing individuals and society to master scientific and technological resources which will allow the use existing possibilities to common welfare;
*protecting, disseminating and expanding cultural heritage;
*condemning any unequal treatment resulting from philosophical, political or religious belief, as well as any social classes or racial prejudices.

==Higher Education==
===Table 1. Institutions of Higher Education in Brazil in 2004===
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:11px;"
|-valign="top" style="background: #ECE5B6;"
!width=""|''' '''
!width=""|''' '''
!width=""|'''Universities'''
!width=""|'''University centers'''
!width=""|'''Integrated colleges '''
!width=""|'''Colleges, Schools, Institutes'''
!width=""|'''CET/FaT*'''

|-valign="top"
| Brazil|| 2013 || 169 || 107 || 119 || 1474 || 144
|-valign="top"
| Public|| 224 || 83 || 3 || 3 || 86 || 49
|-valign="top"
| Federal|| 87 || 46 || 1 || - || 6 || 34
|-valign="top"
| State|| 75 || 32 || - || - || 28 || 15
|-valign="top"
| Municipal|| 62 || 5 || 2 || 3 || 52 || -
|-valign="top"
| Private || 1789 || 86 || 104 || 116 || 1388 || 95
|-valign="top"
| Private || 1401 || 26 || 60 ||97 || 1125 || 93
|-valign="top"
| Community|| 388 || 60 || 44 || 19 || 263 || 2
|}

*CET/FaT Centers for Technological Education and Collages of Technology (INEP, 2004b).

===Summary of Higher Education===

Brazil has put significant resources into developing its higher education system over the past three decades. As a result, a system has evolved in which some institutions have achieved recognizable excellence in teaching and research, while, more generally, the majority of institutions have struggled to provide relevant, quality education at reasonable cost. Looked at in isolation, certain parts of the system are sound and productive. Taken as a whole, the system still has a number of large challenges to overcome.

About 15% of the age cohort is enrolled in higher education. This is quite low compared to other countries in the region (Argentina 36%; Chile 32%; Uruguay 30%; Venezuela, R.B. 29% [World Development Indicators 2001]) and to the OECD country average of 52% (OECD, 2001). Simply doubling the number of spaces offered, however, will not double the rate of coverage, because a demographic bulge of young Brazilians is reaching university age. Over the past 15 years, growth in private provision of higher education was roughly equal to the moderate growth of the university-age cohort, but now large absolute increases in enrollments would be needed simply to maintain the current rate of coverage. In addition, graduation rates from secondary schools are rising sharply and more older, working Brazilians are seeking tertiary degrees. In short, a larger percentage of a growing number of Brazilians are demanding higher education, and the system cannot keep pace with this demand under existing conditions.

Cost per student in public institutions, roughly R$14,000 per year in the federal system, is on par with OECD country averages while quality is not. Rigidities in funding and regulation create strong disincentives for cost-efficiency or quality. Public universities have been funded on the basis of input. Federal policy toward higher education, until recently, did not attempt to control costs or correlate funding to productivity. Other legislation and regulations, outside the control or influence of MEC, created built-in cost increases that did not improve the access, quality, or relevance of the education. University rectors have traditionally concerned themselves more with obtaining resources from the federal government than with managing the resources effectively within their institutions.

With a few notable exceptions, the quality of instruction and the relevance of the curriculum are below desirable standards. Historically, the Brazilian system - like those of continental Europe - is oriented to provide professional training rather than general or interdisciplinary education. Holders of a first university degree (graduação) are licensed to practice their profession by virtue of their diplomas. Such systems have been successful, productive, and of high quality under a variety of conditions. However, in Brazil, thanks largely to restrictive labor market regulation, the influence of professional associations in setting the curricula and the numbers of courses/places have served to limit the supply of professional labor, rather than to satisfy the demands of the labor market. Furthermore, in the Brazilian public system, a lack of coherence in research, teaching, and career advancement policies in public institutions has often led to a concentration of professors doing specialized research at the expense of undergraduate teaching. By contrast, many private institutions are driven by profit, and therefore do not undertake any research or pay salaries necessary to attract and retain high-quality professors.

The public system, which includes many, but not all of the country's finest institutions, provides higher quality education than the private sector, charges no tuition, and limits the number of places. Competition for admittance is fierce, and wealthy students do best because they can afford elite private high schools and special preparation courses for the entrance exams. Estimates on enrollment by income quintile show that two thirds of students are from the highest income quintile, while only about 5% are from the two lowest. It is a generally recognized problem that students from lower and lower middle class backgrounds have greater difficulty gaining entrance to the free, public system. If these individuals study at all, they are more likely to be in the private system, where they must pay tuition. Some financial assistance is available from the government and the institutions themselves, but it does not sufficiently address the needs of the students in the system, and much less the potential students who are excluded due to inability to pay.

Clearly, many important changes are underway within the system. The challenge is to focus attention on those that will promote the greatest progress in equitable access, quality, relevance, and efficiency. With this in mind, it is recommended the following steps. First, with respect to access: (a) the trend towards diversification through new instruments, such as sequential courses, and new institutional definitions (such as university centers) should continue; (b) the amount of targeted financial assistance for poor students should be increased; and (c) five and ten year enrollment increase targets should be identified, and progress toward improved coverage should be monitored closely. Additionally, the Government of Brazil has several policy options for increasing access to tertiary education that it may consider in the future. These include: i) increasing government and private funding of public institutions; in light of the current economic situation in Brazil, and the government's relatively high spending for higher education, it is unlikely that a large infusion of public funds for higher education is forthcoming. However, the addition of private resources could lead to an increased supply of places to the extent that the additional resources are used to educate and train students rather than to pay for administrative costs or research; ii) reducing costs per student at public institutions could be achieved in any number of ways and is best dealt with at the institutional level; and iii) charging tuition at public universities. This option is being used increasingly around the world as a means to maintain or increase institutional budgets. When combined with well thought out student aid schemes, this could have a positive impact on equity access.

===Higher Education structure===

Secondary education is mandatory for those wishing to pursue higher education. In addition, students must pass a competitive entrance examination (known as vestibular) for their specific course of study. The number of candidates per available place in the freshman class may be in excess of 30 or 40 to one in the most competitive courses at the top public universities. In some particular courses with small number of vacancies, this number can be as high as 200.

Higher education in Brazil, as in many nations, can be divided into both undergraduate and graduate work. In addition to providing education, Universities promote research and provide stand-alone classes to the community.

Higher education begins with undergraduate or sequential courses, which may offer different specialization choices such as academic or vocational education. Depending on choice, students may improve their educational background with postgraduate courses Stricto Sensu or Lato Sensu. Higher education has three bases: teaching, research and extension, each with their own specific contribution to make to a particular course. Diplomas and certificates are proof of having passed through higher education.

The standard Brazilian undergraduate bachelor's degree (graduação) is awarded in most fields of arts, humanities, social sciences, mathematical sciences, or natural sciences, and normally requires 4 years of post-secondary studies at a certified university. Students interested in teaching careers at secondary schools can take an additional year in lecturing courses (licenciatura). Five-year degrees are awarded in the so-called professional careers such as architecture, engineering, veterinary medicine, and law. The undergraduate degree in medicine requires in turn six years of full-time post-secondary studies. Residência, a two-to-five years internship in a teaching hospital is not required, but it is pursued by many professionals, especially those who wish to specialize in a given area.

Students who hold a four-year bachelor's degree or a five-year professional diploma are qualified for admission into graduate school (pós-graduação). Graduate master's degrees are normally awarded following the completion of a two-year program requiring satisfactory performance in a minimum number of advanced graduate courses (typically between five and eight classes), plus the submission by the degree candidate of a master's thesis (dissertação de mestrado) that is examined by an oral panel of at least three faculty members, including at least one external examiner. Doctoral degrees on the other hand normally require four years of full-time studies during which the degree candidate is required to complete further advanced graduate coursework, pass a doctoral qualifying exam, and submit an extensive doctoral dissertation (tese de doutorado) that must represent an original and relevant contribution to current knowledge in the field of study to which the dissertation topic belongs. The doctoral dissertation is examined in a final public oral exam administered by a panel of at least five faculty members, two of whom must be external examiners. Results from the dissertation are normally expected to be published in peer-reviewed journals, proceedings of international conferences, and/or in the form of books/book chapters.

===Problems in Higher education system===

The main problems the Brazilian higher education system is facing at present are the following:

1. Access: in spite of the rapid expansion during the last ten years, the system is still small compared with those of other countries in Latin America. Also, most students in higher education come from medium- and high-income groups. The poorest sections of the population can only enter higher education today as a result of the great expansion at secondary level.

2. Finance: the new sections of the population trying to enter higher education lack sufficient financial backing. Places in the free public institutions are very restricted and the cost of private education is very high in terms of the incomes of these new groups aspiring to enter higher education.

3. Quality: the quality of higher education institutions in Brazil is very variable. Alongside institutions with international reputations we find many with low levels of teaching and little encouragement to undertake research.

4. Efficiency: public institutions - usually of better quality than the rest - suffer great problems of inefficiency in the use of public resources, resulting in a relatively small number of students attending them in terms of the amount of funds invested.

5. Curricular structure unrelated to the needs of the labour market: the content of higher education courses in Brazil lacks the flexibility to adapt to the needs of the labour market.

6. Little connection with the productive sector: in general, technological research and development is carried out in universities with little connection with the productive sector.

===Expansion and access to Higher Education===

Higher education enrolments more than doubled in the last ten years. In spite of this significant growth, the gross rate of enrolments at the higher level in Brazil is very small when compared to international levels, even when compared to some of other comparable countries in Latin America. Nevertheless, there is a reasonable consensus of opinion on the need to settle on the most effective way to provide a more lasting solution to the problems of access and equity in higher education. In the 1980s growth in enrolments did not even keep up with population growth.

Between 1980 and 1994 expansion of higher education was quite restricted: growth of only 20% in enrolments; reduction of 3.5% in the number of higher education institutions and 26% growth in the number of courses. In 1994, total enrolments on undergraduate courses were 1.7 million. The higher education system at that time consisted of 851 institutions. There has been a significant increase in enrolments and completions of higher education courses in Brazil after 1995.

The growth in supply of courses in recent years has being greater in towns in the interior than in state capitals. That an ‘interiorization’ of higher education is occurring because of an appreciable growth in the numbers of courses, so that many towns which previously had no HEI now have one. This has brought great benefits to students who had been excluded on a regional basis. Many who had not been able to move to the state capital to study at the higher level and now have the chance to do so in their hometown.

Socio-economic data concerning students in Brazilian higher education institutions show the marked presence of those coming from social groups with average and high incomes. It can even be stated that the supply of places is basically a response to the demand for higher education that these classes have created. With the ever-growing demand and a far greater number of students able and desiring to enter higher education, private institutions have had ample room to increase their supply.

The growing expansion of secondary education and the increase in the number of students leaving this level of education suggests that there is greater pressure for obtaining chances of education at a higher level coming precisely from the poorer classes in society. The growth in supply of courses in recent years has been greater in the poorest states and in towns in the interior than in the southwest or south and state capitals. Projections concerning access to higher education indicate the growth among students from lower-income families in the total numbers of new entrants to higher education. This is happening due to the increased flow of students coming from public secondary education and the increasing demand for better-qualified personnel with university degrees for jobs which previously did not require them.

One of the main areas for public policy in relation to access is the design of the means of financing studies and maintaining lower-income students in the system. The policies of increasing rates of schooling at higher level with improved quality at this level, especially in public institutions, increasing the number of places on evening courses, the broad re-design of the means of financing studies and maintaining lower-income students in the system, are some of the possible initiatives being put into place. The country has experienced several mechanisms for increasing access to higher education, including student loans programmes, scholarships in private institution in exchange of tax exemption and, quotas. The policy of quotas, which is very controversial, appears in this context as a transitional strategy. It is also important to emphasize that the expansion of evening classes in the public sector is still insufficient to meet the potential demand from students who are finishing their public secondary education during the evening ‘shift’. A great part of this potential demand has been met by the private sector. In Brazil, 68% of private enrolments are for the evening period, in which most courses do not require full-time attendance.

===Information society strategy period===

Most efforts in technological development and innovation have been concentrated in certain of Brazil’s universities and not in the business world. Research and development is a strength of higher education of Brazil. Today, almost all states have federal universities, and foundations to encourage research. However, these institutions do not have the same kind of autonomy, especially in terms of continuous, regular and guaranteed financing.

On the other side, Brazil’s scientific and technological development in the area of business is still at an initial stage. Brazilian companies have been late in incorporating and developing technology. It is also a consequence of the weakness of business sector's own capacity of research. On top of that, the collaboration between academia and industries is also very insufficient taking into account the needs of Brazilian development. Besides the poor performance of the Brazilian companies in relation to innovation, there is some prejudice that exist among Brazilian scholars in relation to the cooperation with the private sector.

Brazil shows a paradox: on the one hand, there is in the business sphere a low capacity for absorbing human resources into Science, Technology and Innovation (S&T&I); on the other hand, the system of training these resources has shown a large increase in supply especially in terms of postgraduate programmes. In the last two decades, Brazil’s scientific capacity has grown systematically year by year at an increasingly faster rate. The ranking of countries, according to their participation in world scientific production – Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) of the National Science Indicators (NSI) – is evidence of Brazil’s progress in this field. In 1981, Brazil was in 26th place; in 2001, it already occupied a worthy 18th position. On the other side, from 2000 to 2003 a slow growth was observed in technological development and innovation in Brazilian industry.

The fact that national research being concentrated in universities - in particular at the postgraduate level - makes it very dependent on the training of those with master’s and doctoral degrees. In this context, the importance of new strategies to bring the network of universities together with the world of business becomes more important. An important step in this direction was taken by the recently voted and approved Innovation Law. New means of finance – Sector Funds – and identification of priority sectors in industrial policy, as well as the formulation of the post graduate development plan by CAPES, indicates the desire to continue these trends.

It may be said that a move towards innovation and a clearer preparation for future expansion in R & D activities within growing companies is beginning to be developed recently. There are, however, obstacles hindering this development from proceeding more rapidly. These obstacles are mainly due to organizational inflexibility, problems in the marketplace and the absence of systemic synergy. However, what is most noticeable in the two periods studied is that over 30% of companies complain of lack of qualified personnel. This shows that, even where there is clear difficulty in absorbing manpower, there are questions of quality that have to be overcome.

==Education reform==
An important part of the Brazilian education reform began in 1995 with the creation of a federal department called the "Secretary of Distance Education" (SEED). The goal of SEED is to use information and communication technologies toward supporting and improving the quality and dissemination of education in this country with a population of 170 million people spread across nearly 1/2 of South America's land mass. Under SEED's "Proinfo" program, computers and access to the internet were issued to all public schools in Brazil, under the condition that the schools present an appropriate pedagogical strategy. To this end, each municipal government was allocated funding to establish a "Nucleus of Educational Technology" (NTE), making computer labs and networks available for teachers, and offering educational programs for teacher training.

Another important advance occurred in 1997, when the Brazilian Ministry of Education decreed that all K-12 school teachers have an undergraduate degree, and all university teachers a masters degree, by the year 2006. This meant that at least 50% of the Brazilian teachers and professors would have to upgrade their skills in a relatively short time, resulting in a huge and widespread demand for teacher training, as well as need to create solutions for efficient and effective teacher education.

The Distance Education Laboratory (LED) of the Federal University of Santa Catarina (South Brazil) has been meeting this challenge for several years by forming partnerships with educational institutions all over Brazil, implementing programs using Teleconferencing, Videoconferencing and Internet-based distance education programs, making it possible for teachers to avoid leaving their posts to learn. Although the subjects taught via the LED are varied, they are mainly related to information technology and education, according to each institution's specific needs and budget.

==Brazil virtual university==

http://www.rnp.br/en/news/2000/not-000201_en.html

==References==

some extra info on Brazil education system:
http://www.wwwords.co.uk/pdf/viewpdf.asp?j=elea&vol=3&issue=4&year=2006&article=9_Reifschneider_ELEA_3_4_web&id=134.58.253.57

http://www.usdla.org/html/journal/DEC02_Issue/article05.html

http://www.tfhe.net/resources/higher_edu_brazil.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Brazil

http://www.isep.org/students/placed/handbook_education.asp?country=7

Brazil

2008-09-03T12:28:18Z

SandisZuciks: /* Higher Education */

==Brazil in nutshell==

[[Image:Brazil-map.gif|left|400mp]]
Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is a country in South America. It is the fifth largest country by geographical area, the fifth most populous country, and the fourth most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of over 7,491 kilometers (4,655 mi). It is bordered on the north by Venezuela, Suriname, Guyana and the overseas department of French Guiana; on the northwest by Colombia; on the west by Bolivia and Peru; on the southwest by Argentina and Paraguay and on the south by Uruguay. Numerous archipelagos are part of the Brazilian territory, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz.

Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until its independence in 1822. Initially independent as the Brazilian Empire, the country has been a republic since 1889, even though its bicameral legislature (now called Congress) dates back to 1824, when the first constitution was ratified. Its current Constitution defines Brazil as a Federal Republic. The Federation is formed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities.

Brazil is the world's tenth largest economy at market exchange rates and the ninth largest in purchasing power. Economic reforms have given the country new international projection. It is a founding member of the United Nations and of the Union of South American Nations. A predominantly Roman Catholic, Portuguese-speaking and multiethnic society, Brazil is also home to a diversity of wildlife, natural environments, and extensive natural resources in a variety of protected habitats.

==Brazilian education policy==

Education in Brazil is regulated by the Federal Government, through the Ministry of Education, which defines the guiding principles for the organization of educational programs. Local governments are responsible for establishing state and city educational programsfollowing the guidelines and using the funding supplied by the Federal Government. Brazilian children must attend school a minimum of 9 years, however the schooling is usually inadequate.

The 1988 Brazilian Constitution states that "education" is "a right for all, a duty of the State and of the family, and is to be promoted with the collaboration of society, with the objective of fully developing the person, preparing the individual for the exercise of citizenship and qualifying him/her for work".

The National Educational Bases and Guidelines Law enacted in 1961 says that, "national education, inspired in the principles of freedom and in the ideals of human solidarity, has the purpose of:

*understanding individual rights and responsibilities, as well as those of citizens, the State and other community groups;
*respecting man's dignity and fundamental freedoms;
*strengthening national unity and international solidarity;
*integral development of the human personality and his/her participation in the work towards common welfare;
*preparing individuals and society to master scientific and technological resources which will allow the use existing possibilities to common welfare;
*protecting, disseminating and expanding cultural heritage;
*condemning any unequal treatment resulting from philosophical, political or religious belief, as well as any social classes or racial prejudices.

==Higher Education==
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:11px;"
|-valign="top" style="background: #ECE5B6;"
!width=""|''' '''
!width=""|'''Universities'''
!width=""|'''University centers'''
!width=""|'''Integrated colleges '''
!width=""|'''Colleges, Schools, Institutes'''
!width=""|'''CET/FaT*'''

|-valign="top"
| Brazil|| 2013 || 169 || 107 || 119 || 1474 || 144
|-valign="top"
| Public|| 224 || 83 || 3 || 3 || 86 || 49
|-valign="top"
| Federal|| 87 || 46 || 1 || - || 6 || 34
|-valign="top"
| State|| 13 || 7,452
|-valign="top"
| Municipal|| 6 || 4,058
|-valign="top"
| Private || 1 || 301
|-valign="top"
| Private || 1 || 301
|-valign="top"
| Community|| 1 || 301
|}

===Summary of Higher Education===

Brazil has put significant resources into developing its higher education system over the past three decades. As a result, a system has evolved in which some institutions have achieved recognizable excellence in teaching and research, while, more generally, the majority of institutions have struggled to provide relevant, quality education at reasonable cost. Looked at in isolation, certain parts of the system are sound and productive. Taken as a whole, the system still has a number of large challenges to overcome.

About 15% of the age cohort is enrolled in higher education. This is quite low compared to other countries in the region (Argentina 36%; Chile 32%; Uruguay 30%; Venezuela, R.B. 29% [World Development Indicators 2001]) and to the OECD country average of 52% (OECD, 2001). Simply doubling the number of spaces offered, however, will not double the rate of coverage, because a demographic bulge of young Brazilians is reaching university age. Over the past 15 years, growth in private provision of higher education was roughly equal to the moderate growth of the university-age cohort, but now large absolute increases in enrollments would be needed simply to maintain the current rate of coverage. In addition, graduation rates from secondary schools are rising sharply and more older, working Brazilians are seeking tertiary degrees. In short, a larger percentage of a growing number of Brazilians are demanding higher education, and the system cannot keep pace with this demand under existing conditions.

Cost per student in public institutions, roughly R$14,000 per year in the federal system, is on par with OECD country averages while quality is not. Rigidities in funding and regulation create strong disincentives for cost-efficiency or quality. Public universities have been funded on the basis of input. Federal policy toward higher education, until recently, did not attempt to control costs or correlate funding to productivity. Other legislation and regulations, outside the control or influence of MEC, created built-in cost increases that did not improve the access, quality, or relevance of the education. University rectors have traditionally concerned themselves more with obtaining resources from the federal government than with managing the resources effectively within their institutions.

With a few notable exceptions, the quality of instruction and the relevance of the curriculum are below desirable standards. Historically, the Brazilian system - like those of continental Europe - is oriented to provide professional training rather than general or interdisciplinary education. Holders of a first university degree (graduação) are licensed to practice their profession by virtue of their diplomas. Such systems have been successful, productive, and of high quality under a variety of conditions. However, in Brazil, thanks largely to restrictive labor market regulation, the influence of professional associations in setting the curricula and the numbers of courses/places have served to limit the supply of professional labor, rather than to satisfy the demands of the labor market. Furthermore, in the Brazilian public system, a lack of coherence in research, teaching, and career advancement policies in public institutions has often led to a concentration of professors doing specialized research at the expense of undergraduate teaching. By contrast, many private institutions are driven by profit, and therefore do not undertake any research or pay salaries necessary to attract and retain high-quality professors.

The public system, which includes many, but not all of the country's finest institutions, provides higher quality education than the private sector, charges no tuition, and limits the number of places. Competition for admittance is fierce, and wealthy students do best because they can afford elite private high schools and special preparation courses for the entrance exams. Estimates on enrollment by income quintile show that two thirds of students are from the highest income quintile, while only about 5% are from the two lowest. It is a generally recognized problem that students from lower and lower middle class backgrounds have greater difficulty gaining entrance to the free, public system. If these individuals study at all, they are more likely to be in the private system, where they must pay tuition. Some financial assistance is available from the government and the institutions themselves, but it does not sufficiently address the needs of the students in the system, and much less the potential students who are excluded due to inability to pay.

Clearly, many important changes are underway within the system. The challenge is to focus attention on those that will promote the greatest progress in equitable access, quality, relevance, and efficiency. With this in mind, it is recommended the following steps. First, with respect to access: (a) the trend towards diversification through new instruments, such as sequential courses, and new institutional definitions (such as university centers) should continue; (b) the amount of targeted financial assistance for poor students should be increased; and (c) five and ten year enrollment increase targets should be identified, and progress toward improved coverage should be monitored closely. Additionally, the Government of Brazil has several policy options for increasing access to tertiary education that it may consider in the future. These include: i) increasing government and private funding of public institutions; in light of the current economic situation in Brazil, and the government's relatively high spending for higher education, it is unlikely that a large infusion of public funds for higher education is forthcoming. However, the addition of private resources could lead to an increased supply of places to the extent that the additional resources are used to educate and train students rather than to pay for administrative costs or research; ii) reducing costs per student at public institutions could be achieved in any number of ways and is best dealt with at the institutional level; and iii) charging tuition at public universities. This option is being used increasingly around the world as a means to maintain or increase institutional budgets. When combined with well thought out student aid schemes, this could have a positive impact on equity access.

===Higher Education structure===

Secondary education is mandatory for those wishing to pursue higher education. In addition, students must pass a competitive entrance examination (known as vestibular) for their specific course of study. The number of candidates per available place in the freshman class may be in excess of 30 or 40 to one in the most competitive courses at the top public universities. In some particular courses with small number of vacancies, this number can be as high as 200.

Higher education in Brazil, as in many nations, can be divided into both undergraduate and graduate work. In addition to providing education, Universities promote research and provide stand-alone classes to the community.

Higher education begins with undergraduate or sequential courses, which may offer different specialization choices such as academic or vocational education. Depending on choice, students may improve their educational background with postgraduate courses Stricto Sensu or Lato Sensu. Higher education has three bases: teaching, research and extension, each with their own specific contribution to make to a particular course. Diplomas and certificates are proof of having passed through higher education.

The standard Brazilian undergraduate bachelor's degree (graduação) is awarded in most fields of arts, humanities, social sciences, mathematical sciences, or natural sciences, and normally requires 4 years of post-secondary studies at a certified university. Students interested in teaching careers at secondary schools can take an additional year in lecturing courses (licenciatura). Five-year degrees are awarded in the so-called professional careers such as architecture, engineering, veterinary medicine, and law. The undergraduate degree in medicine requires in turn six years of full-time post-secondary studies. Residência, a two-to-five years internship in a teaching hospital is not required, but it is pursued by many professionals, especially those who wish to specialize in a given area.

Students who hold a four-year bachelor's degree or a five-year professional diploma are qualified for admission into graduate school (pós-graduação). Graduate master's degrees are normally awarded following the completion of a two-year program requiring satisfactory performance in a minimum number of advanced graduate courses (typically between five and eight classes), plus the submission by the degree candidate of a master's thesis (dissertação de mestrado) that is examined by an oral panel of at least three faculty members, including at least one external examiner. Doctoral degrees on the other hand normally require four years of full-time studies during which the degree candidate is required to complete further advanced graduate coursework, pass a doctoral qualifying exam, and submit an extensive doctoral dissertation (tese de doutorado) that must represent an original and relevant contribution to current knowledge in the field of study to which the dissertation topic belongs. The doctoral dissertation is examined in a final public oral exam administered by a panel of at least five faculty members, two of whom must be external examiners. Results from the dissertation are normally expected to be published in peer-reviewed journals, proceedings of international conferences, and/or in the form of books/book chapters.

===Problems in Higher education system===

The main problems the Brazilian higher education system is facing at present are the following:

1. Access: in spite of the rapid expansion during the last ten years, the system is still small compared with those of other countries in Latin America. Also, most students in higher education come from medium- and high-income groups. The poorest sections of the population can only enter higher education today as a result of the great expansion at secondary level.

2. Finance: the new sections of the population trying to enter higher education lack sufficient financial backing. Places in the free public institutions are very restricted and the cost of private education is very high in terms of the incomes of these new groups aspiring to enter higher education.

3. Quality: the quality of higher education institutions in Brazil is very variable. Alongside institutions with international reputations we find many with low levels of teaching and little encouragement to undertake research.

4. Efficiency: public institutions - usually of better quality than the rest - suffer great problems of inefficiency in the use of public resources, resulting in a relatively small number of students attending them in terms of the amount of funds invested.

5. Curricular structure unrelated to the needs of the labour market: the content of higher education courses in Brazil lacks the flexibility to adapt to the needs of the labour market.

6. Little connection with the productive sector: in general, technological research and development is carried out in universities with little connection with the productive sector.

===Expansion and access to Higher Education===

Higher education enrolments more than doubled in the last ten years. In spite of this significant growth, the gross rate of enrolments at the higher level in Brazil is very small when compared to international levels, even when compared to some of other comparable countries in Latin America. Nevertheless, there is a reasonable consensus of opinion on the need to settle on the most effective way to provide a more lasting solution to the problems of access and equity in higher education. In the 1980s growth in enrolments did not even keep up with population growth.

Between 1980 and 1994 expansion of higher education was quite restricted: growth of only 20% in enrolments; reduction of 3.5% in the number of higher education institutions and 26% growth in the number of courses. In 1994, total enrolments on undergraduate courses were 1.7 million. The higher education system at that time consisted of 851 institutions. There has been a significant increase in enrolments and completions of higher education courses in Brazil after 1995.

The growth in supply of courses in recent years has being greater in towns in the interior than in state capitals. That an ‘interiorization’ of higher education is occurring because of an appreciable growth in the numbers of courses, so that many towns which previously had no HEI now have one. This has brought great benefits to students who had been excluded on a regional basis. Many who had not been able to move to the state capital to study at the higher level and now have the chance to do so in their hometown.

Socio-economic data concerning students in Brazilian higher education institutions show the marked presence of those coming from social groups with average and high incomes. It can even be stated that the supply of places is basically a response to the demand for higher education that these classes have created. With the ever-growing demand and a far greater number of students able and desiring to enter higher education, private institutions have had ample room to increase their supply.

The growing expansion of secondary education and the increase in the number of students leaving this level of education suggests that there is greater pressure for obtaining chances of education at a higher level coming precisely from the poorer classes in society. The growth in supply of courses in recent years has been greater in the poorest states and in towns in the interior than in the southwest or south and state capitals. Projections concerning access to higher education indicate the growth among students from lower-income families in the total numbers of new entrants to higher education. This is happening due to the increased flow of students coming from public secondary education and the increasing demand for better-qualified personnel with university degrees for jobs which previously did not require them.

One of the main areas for public policy in relation to access is the design of the means of financing studies and maintaining lower-income students in the system. The policies of increasing rates of schooling at higher level with improved quality at this level, especially in public institutions, increasing the number of places on evening courses, the broad re-design of the means of financing studies and maintaining lower-income students in the system, are some of the possible initiatives being put into place. The country has experienced several mechanisms for increasing access to higher education, including student loans programmes, scholarships in private institution in exchange of tax exemption and, quotas. The policy of quotas, which is very controversial, appears in this context as a transitional strategy. It is also important to emphasize that the expansion of evening classes in the public sector is still insufficient to meet the potential demand from students who are finishing their public secondary education during the evening ‘shift’. A great part of this potential demand has been met by the private sector. In Brazil, 68% of private enrolments are for the evening period, in which most courses do not require full-time attendance.

===Information society strategy period===

Most efforts in technological development and innovation have been concentrated in certain of Brazil’s universities and not in the business world. Research and development is a strength of higher education of Brazil. Today, almost all states have federal universities, and foundations to encourage research. However, these institutions do not have the same kind of autonomy, especially in terms of continuous, regular and guaranteed financing.

On the other side, Brazil’s scientific and technological development in the area of business is still at an initial stage. Brazilian companies have been late in incorporating and developing technology. It is also a consequence of the weakness of business sector's own capacity of research. On top of that, the collaboration between academia and industries is also very insufficient taking into account the needs of Brazilian development. Besides the poor performance of the Brazilian companies in relation to innovation, there is some prejudice that exist among Brazilian scholars in relation to the cooperation with the private sector.

Brazil shows a paradox: on the one hand, there is in the business sphere a low capacity for absorbing human resources into Science, Technology and Innovation (S&T&I); on the other hand, the system of training these resources has shown a large increase in supply especially in terms of postgraduate programmes. In the last two decades, Brazil’s scientific capacity has grown systematically year by year at an increasingly faster rate. The ranking of countries, according to their participation in world scientific production – Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) of the National Science Indicators (NSI) – is evidence of Brazil’s progress in this field. In 1981, Brazil was in 26th place; in 2001, it already occupied a worthy 18th position. On the other side, from 2000 to 2003 a slow growth was observed in technological development and innovation in Brazilian industry.

The fact that national research being concentrated in universities - in particular at the postgraduate level - makes it very dependent on the training of those with master’s and doctoral degrees. In this context, the importance of new strategies to bring the network of universities together with the world of business becomes more important. An important step in this direction was taken by the recently voted and approved Innovation Law. New means of finance – Sector Funds – and identification of priority sectors in industrial policy, as well as the formulation of the post graduate development plan by CAPES, indicates the desire to continue these trends.

It may be said that a move towards innovation and a clearer preparation for future expansion in R & D activities within growing companies is beginning to be developed recently. There are, however, obstacles hindering this development from proceeding more rapidly. These obstacles are mainly due to organizational inflexibility, problems in the marketplace and the absence of systemic synergy. However, what is most noticeable in the two periods studied is that over 30% of companies complain of lack of qualified personnel. This shows that, even where there is clear difficulty in absorbing manpower, there are questions of quality that have to be overcome.

==Education reform==
An important part of the Brazilian education reform began in 1995 with the creation of a federal department called the "Secretary of Distance Education" (SEED). The goal of SEED is to use information and communication technologies toward supporting and improving the quality and dissemination of education in this country with a population of 170 million people spread across nearly 1/2 of South America's land mass. Under SEED's "Proinfo" program, computers and access to the internet were issued to all public schools in Brazil, under the condition that the schools present an appropriate pedagogical strategy. To this end, each municipal government was allocated funding to establish a "Nucleus of Educational Technology" (NTE), making computer labs and networks available for teachers, and offering educational programs for teacher training.

Another important advance occurred in 1997, when the Brazilian Ministry of Education decreed that all K-12 school teachers have an undergraduate degree, and all university teachers a masters degree, by the year 2006. This meant that at least 50% of the Brazilian teachers and professors would have to upgrade their skills in a relatively short time, resulting in a huge and widespread demand for teacher training, as well as need to create solutions for efficient and effective teacher education.

The Distance Education Laboratory (LED) of the Federal University of Santa Catarina (South Brazil) has been meeting this challenge for several years by forming partnerships with educational institutions all over Brazil, implementing programs using Teleconferencing, Videoconferencing and Internet-based distance education programs, making it possible for teachers to avoid leaving their posts to learn. Although the subjects taught via the LED are varied, they are mainly related to information technology and education, according to each institution's specific needs and budget.

==Brazil virtual university==

http://www.rnp.br/en/news/2000/not-000201_en.html

==References==

some extra info on Brazil education system:
http://www.wwwords.co.uk/pdf/viewpdf.asp?j=elea&vol=3&issue=4&year=2006&article=9_Reifschneider_ELEA_3_4_web&id=134.58.253.57

http://www.usdla.org/html/journal/DEC02_Issue/article05.html

http://www.tfhe.net/resources/higher_edu_brazil.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Brazil

http://www.isep.org/students/placed/handbook_education.asp?country=7

Spain from Re.ViCa

2008-09-03T11:14:02Z

SandisZuciks: /* Spain in a nutshell */

==Spain in a nutshell==
[[Image:Spain-map.gif|left|400mp]]
Spain or the Kingdom of Spain, is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula.

The Spanish mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with Gibraltar; to the north by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the west by the Atlantic Ocean and Portugal. Spanish territory also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean off the African coast, and two autonomous cities in North Africa, Ceuta and Melilla, that border Morocco. With an area of 504,030 km², Spain is the second largest country in Western Europe after France.

After serving as a granary of the Roman Empire, much of Spain was later conquered by a Muslim people, the Moors. Christian kingdoms gradually rolled back Muslim rule, completing this Reconquista in 1492. Spain became the leading world power, with a global empire on a scale and world distribution that had never been approached by its predecessors and a legacy today of over 400 million Spanish-speakers worldwide.

Napoleon's invasion of Spain in the early 19th century triggered independence movements that tore the empire apart and left the country politically unstable. In the 20th century it suffered a devastating civil war and came under the rule of a dictatorship, leading to years of stagnation. Democracy was restored in 1978 and the country has subsequently experienced a cultural renaissance and steady economic growth. Spain is now a constitutional monarchy organised as a parliamentary democracy and has been a member of the European Union since 1986, and NATO since 1982. It is a developed country with the eighth largest economy in the world based on nominal GDP.

==Spanish education system==

*From 3 to 5 years of age - ''Educación Infantil'' (Pre-school)
*From 6 to 11 years of age - ''Educación Primaria'' (Primary School) Years, 1º, 2º, 3º, 4º, 5º and 6º
*From 12 to 16 years of age - ''Educación Secundaria Obligatoria'' (Compulsory Secondary Schooling) Years, 1º, 2º, 3º, 4º
*From 17 to 18 years of age - ''Bachillerato'' (Post-Compulsory Schooling), years 1º, 2º

Children from 3 to 5 years old in Spain have the option of attending the infantil (popularly known as preescolar) or Pre-school stage, which is non-compulsory and free for all students. It is regarded as an integral part of the education system with infants classes at almost every primary school. There are some separate Colegios Infantiles, or nursery schools.

Spanish students aged 6 to 16 undergo primary school, primary and secondary school education, which are compulsory and free of charge. Successful students are awarded a Secondary Education Certificate, which is necessary for entering further optional education as is Bachillerato for their University or Formacion Professional (Vocational Studies).
Once students have finished their Bachillerato, they can take their University Entrance Exam (Pruebas de Acceso a la Universidad, popularly called Selectividad) which differs greatly from region to region.

The secondary stage of education is normally referred to by their initials, eg. ESO (Educación Secundaria Obligatoria) for secondary education.

==Higher Education==

=== Spain's University system ===

There are 51 public and 21 private universities in Spain. They are distributed throughout the country but the cities with the highest number of universities are Madrid (13), Barcelona (8) and Valencia (4).

Madrid has the highest number of private universities located there. These universities are very interested in the admission of foreign students to a wide range of undergraduate and graduate programs.

There are four different types of university establishments in Spain:
* university schools (escuelas universitarias), where ‘short-term’ three-year courses are offered;

* university colleges (colegios universitarios) where the first three years of study leading to a licenciado is completed;

* faculties (facultades) where long-term courses are offered in all academic disciplines (except technical courses) and

* higher technical schools of engineering and architecture (escuela superior de ingeniería y arquitectura) where long-term technical courses are completed.

The Spanish university system is rigidly structured and students must choose a fixed curriculum and aren’t permitted to change universities during their studies.

Undergraduate university studies are divided into different stages known as cycles. There are three types of programs:

* Single-cycle programs (or short-cycle studies): These studies do not continue to the second cycle and degrees awarded are the Diplomatura (Bachelor degree). These are normally three-year programs.

* Two-cycle studies with an intermediate diploma: The first cycle leads to the award of the Diplomatura (Bachelor), or Arquitectura Técnica and Ingeniería Técnica (Bachelor degree in Architecture or Engineering), and students have the option of continuing to the second cycle for the award of the degree of Licenciatura (Masters degree), or Arquitecto and Ingeniero (Architect and Engineer). These are five or six-year programs.

* Two-cycle studies without an intermediate diploma (or long-cycle studies): These studies are divided into two cycles but it is necessary to complete both to be eligible for the award of the Licenciatura(Masters Degree). These are four or five-year programs.

In addition to these official degrees or diplomas, each university offers a wide range of unofficial degrees (Maestrias) as well as graduate programs in a wide range of subjects that qualify for the award of the degree of Doctor (Ph.D.). The unofficial degrees are typically one or two years and usually require having attained an undergraduate or graduate degree and are widely recognized for their labour market value, as these qualifications are highly practical in scope and geared to specialized sectors of the different professions. Spanish universities' offer of doctoral degree programs typically require four years of study and research.

The universities cover the whole spectrum of official degrees offered in Spain with the official recognition of its Ministry of Education, as well as a wide variety of non-official degrees in a large number of professional fields.

===Costs===

All non-university state education is free in Spain, but parents have to buy all of their children's books and materials. There also are private schools for all the range of compulsory education, and also Bachillerato. At them, parents must pay a monthly/termly/yearly fee. Most of these schools are run by religious orders, and include single-sex schools.

Schools supply a list of what is required at the start of each school year and which will include art and craft materials as well as text and exercise books. Expect to spend a minimum of around ninety pounds (GBP) per child,[citation needed] but in some regions, the autonomous government is giving tokens to exchange them in book shops for free, this is being adapted in 2006 in regions, such as Andalucia, where kids from 3 to 10 will get the books for free, on the following years it is expected for all compulsory years. School uniform is not normally worn in state schools but is usually worn in private schools.

===Qualifications===

The Certificate of Secondary Education is awarded at the end of compulsory secondary education after passing every subject but 2, and a student who achieves appropriate grades graduates from Compulsory Secondary Education (ESO) and can apply for one of the different types of (Spanish) Bachillerato.

The modalities of Bachillerato depend on each region, but are commonly, Arts & Letters (Bachillerato de Humanidades), Natural and Health Sciences (Bachillerato de Ciencias de la Naturaleza y la Salud), Technology (Bachillerato Tecnológico), Social Sciences (Bachillerato de Ciencias Sociales) and Arts (Bachillerato de Arte), having 3 different thematic subjects each, and several common subjects such as Spanish, Foreign Language, Philosophy, History, etc.

Middle or Superior Vocational training is also a common possibility after ESO or after Bachillerato, they are called Ciclos Formativos de Grado Medio for middle or Ciclos Formativos de grado Superior for Superior getting a Technician Degree, or it can be taken after Bachillerato, getting a Superior Technician diploma and direct entrance to several related University degrees, there are more than 200 different specialities.

Students with appropriate qualifications and wishing to enroll in University in Spain must usually take an entrance exam called Selectividad, that consists in 6 tests, 3 for each subject and a test for each History or Philosophy, Foreign Language (commonly English) and Spanish grammar and literature (Autonomous communities that have a co-official language, have also another test about co-official language grammar and literature), after passing their Bachillerato. The Spanish School Leaving Certificate is equivalent to a number of GCSEs. The Bachillerato is equivalent to A levels. Therefore, Spanish students obtaining the appropriate grades required for entrance into universities in Europe, including England, are not precluded.

=== The Spanish Academic Landscape===

''This paragraph is taken from the article 'Virtual Education and the European Accreditation System' by Domingo Sánchez-Mesa Martínez''

The potential of new technologies in the complex but crucial itinerary to the European
Higher Education Area was stressed, in a national context in Spain, by the well known and
polemical [http://www.crue.org/informeuniv2000.htm Bricall Report], one of the basic preparatory documents for the subsequent Ley Orgánica de Universidades (L.O.U., 2001). In spite of the most critical aspects of this law, the fact is that the whole chapter IX was devoted to the potential of ICT and its consequences
for the next future of the Spanish university within the all pervading horizon of the European
convergence. Since then, a number of documents have pointed at the potential of eLearning,
while the development of distance learning programmes and units almost everywhere in
the academic environment and beyond, coincide with a series of important processes for
the Spanish universities:

• An increasing tendency to bring the academic world closer to society (as the proliferation
of the number and relevance of the University-Enterprise foundations shows), including
the general concern towards the need of an improvement of linguistic, communicational
and computer-related competences within the university community;

• A clear invitation to shift the traditional teaching-oriented paradigm to a more flexible
learning-oriented one;

• A determined will to reform the system of postgraduate studies and foster its importance
in the education and better qualification of the professionals;

• The stress on the role that virtual education is to play according to the prospects of a
lifelong learning kind of society.

That chapter also stressed the integration of ICT and the need to trust international
cooperation through university networks, casting additional interesting arguments under
the conviction that “Society expects from the new university graduates an awareness of the
influence of the various forms of management of these technologies in their respective disciplines,
as well as the requested knowledge and qualification to make use of these technologies” (Bricall
2000, 454). The three wide areas of the university environment where the impact of ICT was
to be perceived were:

• the production and distribution of contents, both in education and in research,

• the teaching/learning models, and

• the organisational model.

Among the most symptomatic issues and observations raised by this text, we would like to
underline the following:

• The ‘pressure’ or competition from the non-academic providers of ICT in higher education,
become increasingly intensive in these organisations;

• The many actions taken by traditional universities concerning the integration of ICT, are
not well supported by explicit and clear institutional general policies. In this sense, it is
very much recommended to have a clear educational policy, based on the screening of
addressees and the identification of the goals and the choice of the kind of technology
to be used;

• The strong resistance of teaching and administrative staff to the introduction of ICT in
the academic pedagogical and organisational model;

• The recommendation of the search for models combining traditional face-to-face
teaching with distance learning modules (blended formulas);

• The prospects of future growth for higher education will emerge from the continuous
professional education needs;

• In order to maximise the investments needed in this process of innovation, the
engagement of universities in larger networks or consortiums with other universities
in an international framework, and/or with public institutions and/or with private
organisations was promoted. ICT is perceived as a means to facilitate the organisation
and implementation of international ICT based courses. The idea of a virtual Erasmus is
already into motion and one of the major challenges in this process.

===Spain in European Higher education space===

Since 1999, Spain has been immersed in a transformation of its higher education system, along with more than 30 European countries, with the aim of creating a European Higher Education Space (EHES). This process will culminate in 2010 and its objectives are to harmonize qualification frameworks and the credit system (units for measuring academic achievement), as well as to guarantee the standards and recognition of qualifications, in order to increase student mobility and facilitate the integration of graduates into the European labor market.

Spain is implementing legal measures for the adoption of the European credit and qualifications system, as well as the European qualification supplements. This facilitates the recognition of official Spanish qualifications in over 30 countries participating in the EHES project, as well as the official recognition of Spanish qualifications in other countries outside the European framework, such as the United States, Asia and Latin America.

=== Virtual learning initiatives===

Here are just some of the virtual learning/virtual campus initiatives in Spain:

* [[ Universitat Oberta de Catalunya]]

http://www.uoc.edu

* [[Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia]]

http://www.uned.es

http://www.uned.es/webuned/areasgen/info/english2.htm (English)

* La Universidad a Distancia de Madrid

http://www.udima.es/

* CEVUG, Centro de Enseñanza Virtual de la Universidad de Granada

http://cevug.ugr.es/

* Campus Virtual de la Universidad Complutense de Madrid
https://www.ucm.es/campusvirtual/CVUCM/index.php

* [[Asociación Nacional de Centros de e-Learning y Distancia]]

http://www.anced.es/

The book "Buenas Prácticas de e-learning" by Ana Landeta Etxeberrí gives an overview of interesting e-learning and distance learning initiatives and projects in Spain (and some other countries).

Available in Spanish at http://www.buenaspracticas-elearning.com/

==Sources==

Bricall, J. Informe Universidad 2000. (Report commissioned by the CRUE, Conferencia de Rectores de las
Universidades Españolas). Available at <http://www.crue.org/informeuniv2000.htm>.

Sánchez-Mesa Martínez D.,Virtual Education and the European Accreditation System. In: Boonen A. & W. Van Petegem (eds.). European Networking and Learning for the Future. The EuroPACE Approach. 2007, Garant, Antwerp-Apeldoorn. p. 137-146.

Landeta Etxeberría A., Buenas Prácticas de e-learning. 2007, @nced, Spain.

http://www.tostudyinspain.com/

http://www.expatica.com/es/survival/education/higher-education-in-spain-1896.html

----
> [[Countries]]

[[Category:Europe]]
[[Category:European Union]]

File:Spain-map.gif

2008-09-03T11:13:25Z

SandisZuciks:

Brazil

2008-09-03T11:11:48Z

SandisZuciks: /* Brazil in nutshell */

==Brazil in nutshell==

[[Image:Brazil-map.gif|left|400mp]]
Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is a country in South America. It is the fifth largest country by geographical area, the fifth most populous country, and the fourth most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of over 7,491 kilometers (4,655 mi). It is bordered on the north by Venezuela, Suriname, Guyana and the overseas department of French Guiana; on the northwest by Colombia; on the west by Bolivia and Peru; on the southwest by Argentina and Paraguay and on the south by Uruguay. Numerous archipelagos are part of the Brazilian territory, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz.

Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until its independence in 1822. Initially independent as the Brazilian Empire, the country has been a republic since 1889, even though its bicameral legislature (now called Congress) dates back to 1824, when the first constitution was ratified. Its current Constitution defines Brazil as a Federal Republic. The Federation is formed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities.

Brazil is the world's tenth largest economy at market exchange rates and the ninth largest in purchasing power. Economic reforms have given the country new international projection. It is a founding member of the United Nations and of the Union of South American Nations. A predominantly Roman Catholic, Portuguese-speaking and multiethnic society, Brazil is also home to a diversity of wildlife, natural environments, and extensive natural resources in a variety of protected habitats.

==Brazilian education policy==

Education in Brazil is regulated by the Federal Government, through the Ministry of Education, which defines the guiding principles for the organization of educational programs. Local governments are responsible for establishing state and city educational programsfollowing the guidelines and using the funding supplied by the Federal Government. Brazilian children must attend school a minimum of 9 years, however the schooling is usually inadequate.

The 1988 Brazilian Constitution states that "education" is "a right for all, a duty of the State and of the family, and is to be promoted with the collaboration of society, with the objective of fully developing the person, preparing the individual for the exercise of citizenship and qualifying him/her for work".

The National Educational Bases and Guidelines Law enacted in 1961 says that, "national education, inspired in the principles of freedom and in the ideals of human solidarity, has the purpose of:

*understanding individual rights and responsibilities, as well as those of citizens, the State and other community groups;
*respecting man's dignity and fundamental freedoms;
*strengthening national unity and international solidarity;
*integral development of the human personality and his/her participation in the work towards common welfare;
*preparing individuals and society to master scientific and technological resources which will allow the use existing possibilities to common welfare;
*protecting, disseminating and expanding cultural heritage;
*condemning any unequal treatment resulting from philosophical, political or religious belief, as well as any social classes or racial prejudices.

==Higher Education==
===Summary of Higher Education===

Brazil has put significant resources into developing its higher education system over the past three decades. As a result, a system has evolved in which some institutions have achieved recognizable excellence in teaching and research, while, more generally, the majority of institutions have struggled to provide relevant, quality education at reasonable cost. Looked at in isolation, certain parts of the system are sound and productive. Taken as a whole, the system still has a number of large challenges to overcome.

About 15% of the age cohort is enrolled in higher education. This is quite low compared to other countries in the region (Argentina 36%; Chile 32%; Uruguay 30%; Venezuela, R.B. 29% [World Development Indicators 2001]) and to the OECD country average of 52% (OECD, 2001). Simply doubling the number of spaces offered, however, will not double the rate of coverage, because a demographic bulge of young Brazilians is reaching university age. Over the past 15 years, growth in private provision of higher education was roughly equal to the moderate growth of the university-age cohort, but now large absolute increases in enrollments would be needed simply to maintain the current rate of coverage. In addition, graduation rates from secondary schools are rising sharply and more older, working Brazilians are seeking tertiary degrees. In short, a larger percentage of a growing number of Brazilians are demanding higher education, and the system cannot keep pace with this demand under existing conditions.

Cost per student in public institutions, roughly R$14,000 per year in the federal system, is on par with OECD country averages while quality is not. Rigidities in funding and regulation create strong disincentives for cost-efficiency or quality. Public universities have been funded on the basis of input. Federal policy toward higher education, until recently, did not attempt to control costs or correlate funding to productivity. Other legislation and regulations, outside the control or influence of MEC, created built-in cost increases that did not improve the access, quality, or relevance of the education. University rectors have traditionally concerned themselves more with obtaining resources from the federal government than with managing the resources effectively within their institutions.

With a few notable exceptions, the quality of instruction and the relevance of the curriculum are below desirable standards. Historically, the Brazilian system - like those of continental Europe - is oriented to provide professional training rather than general or interdisciplinary education. Holders of a first university degree (graduação) are licensed to practice their profession by virtue of their diplomas. Such systems have been successful, productive, and of high quality under a variety of conditions. However, in Brazil, thanks largely to restrictive labor market regulation, the influence of professional associations in setting the curricula and the numbers of courses/places have served to limit the supply of professional labor, rather than to satisfy the demands of the labor market. Furthermore, in the Brazilian public system, a lack of coherence in research, teaching, and career advancement policies in public institutions has often led to a concentration of professors doing specialized research at the expense of undergraduate teaching. By contrast, many private institutions are driven by profit, and therefore do not undertake any research or pay salaries necessary to attract and retain high-quality professors.

The public system, which includes many, but not all of the country's finest institutions, provides higher quality education than the private sector, charges no tuition, and limits the number of places. Competition for admittance is fierce, and wealthy students do best because they can afford elite private high schools and special preparation courses for the entrance exams. Estimates on enrollment by income quintile show that two thirds of students are from the highest income quintile, while only about 5% are from the two lowest. It is a generally recognized problem that students from lower and lower middle class backgrounds have greater difficulty gaining entrance to the free, public system. If these individuals study at all, they are more likely to be in the private system, where they must pay tuition. Some financial assistance is available from the government and the institutions themselves, but it does not sufficiently address the needs of the students in the system, and much less the potential students who are excluded due to inability to pay.

Clearly, many important changes are underway within the system. The challenge is to focus attention on those that will promote the greatest progress in equitable access, quality, relevance, and efficiency. With this in mind, it is recommended the following steps. First, with respect to access: (a) the trend towards diversification through new instruments, such as sequential courses, and new institutional definitions (such as university centers) should continue; (b) the amount of targeted financial assistance for poor students should be increased; and (c) five and ten year enrollment increase targets should be identified, and progress toward improved coverage should be monitored closely. Additionally, the Government of Brazil has several policy options for increasing access to tertiary education that it may consider in the future. These include: i) increasing government and private funding of public institutions; in light of the current economic situation in Brazil, and the government's relatively high spending for higher education, it is unlikely that a large infusion of public funds for higher education is forthcoming. However, the addition of private resources could lead to an increased supply of places to the extent that the additional resources are used to educate and train students rather than to pay for administrative costs or research; ii) reducing costs per student at public institutions could be achieved in any number of ways and is best dealt with at the institutional level; and iii) charging tuition at public universities. This option is being used increasingly around the world as a means to maintain or increase institutional budgets. When combined with well thought out student aid schemes, this could have a positive impact on equity access.

===Higher Education structure===

Secondary education is mandatory for those wishing to pursue higher education. In addition, students must pass a competitive entrance examination (known as vestibular) for their specific course of study. The number of candidates per available place in the freshman class may be in excess of 30 or 40 to one in the most competitive courses at the top public universities. In some particular courses with small number of vacancies, this number can be as high as 200.

Higher education in Brazil, as in many nations, can be divided into both undergraduate and graduate work. In addition to providing education, Universities promote research and provide stand-alone classes to the community.

Higher education begins with undergraduate or sequential courses, which may offer different specialization choices such as academic or vocational education. Depending on choice, students may improve their educational background with postgraduate courses Stricto Sensu or Lato Sensu. Higher education has three bases: teaching, research and extension, each with their own specific contribution to make to a particular course. Diplomas and certificates are proof of having passed through higher education.

The standard Brazilian undergraduate bachelor's degree (graduação) is awarded in most fields of arts, humanities, social sciences, mathematical sciences, or natural sciences, and normally requires 4 years of post-secondary studies at a certified university. Students interested in teaching careers at secondary schools can take an additional year in lecturing courses (licenciatura). Five-year degrees are awarded in the so-called professional careers such as architecture, engineering, veterinary medicine, and law. The undergraduate degree in medicine requires in turn six years of full-time post-secondary studies. Residência, a two-to-five years internship in a teaching hospital is not required, but it is pursued by many professionals, especially those who wish to specialize in a given area.

Students who hold a four-year bachelor's degree or a five-year professional diploma are qualified for admission into graduate school (pós-graduação). Graduate master's degrees are normally awarded following the completion of a two-year program requiring satisfactory performance in a minimum number of advanced graduate courses (typically between five and eight classes), plus the submission by the degree candidate of a master's thesis (dissertação de mestrado) that is examined by an oral panel of at least three faculty members, including at least one external examiner. Doctoral degrees on the other hand normally require four years of full-time studies during which the degree candidate is required to complete further advanced graduate coursework, pass a doctoral qualifying exam, and submit an extensive doctoral dissertation (tese de doutorado) that must represent an original and relevant contribution to current knowledge in the field of study to which the dissertation topic belongs. The doctoral dissertation is examined in a final public oral exam administered by a panel of at least five faculty members, two of whom must be external examiners. Results from the dissertation are normally expected to be published in peer-reviewed journals, proceedings of international conferences, and/or in the form of books/book chapters.

===Problems in Higher education system===

The main problems the Brazilian higher education system is facing at present are the following:

1. Access: in spite of the rapid expansion during the last ten years, the system is still small compared with those of other countries in Latin America. Also, most students in higher education come from medium- and high-income groups. The poorest sections of the population can only enter higher education today as a result of the great expansion at secondary level.

2. Finance: the new sections of the population trying to enter higher education lack sufficient financial backing. Places in the free public institutions are very restricted and the cost of private education is very high in terms of the incomes of these new groups aspiring to enter higher education.

3. Quality: the quality of higher education institutions in Brazil is very variable. Alongside institutions with international reputations we find many with low levels of teaching and little encouragement to undertake research.

4. Efficiency: public institutions - usually of better quality than the rest - suffer great problems of inefficiency in the use of public resources, resulting in a relatively small number of students attending them in terms of the amount of funds invested.

5. Curricular structure unrelated to the needs of the labour market: the content of higher education courses in Brazil lacks the flexibility to adapt to the needs of the labour market.

6. Little connection with the productive sector: in general, technological research and development is carried out in universities with little connection with the productive sector.

===Expansion and access to Higher Education===

Higher education enrolments more than doubled in the last ten years. In spite of this significant growth, the gross rate of enrolments at the higher level in Brazil is very small when compared to international levels, even when compared to some of other comparable countries in Latin America. Nevertheless, there is a reasonable consensus of opinion on the need to settle on the most effective way to provide a more lasting solution to the problems of access and equity in higher education. In the 1980s growth in enrolments did not even keep up with population growth.

Between 1980 and 1994 expansion of higher education was quite restricted: growth of only 20% in enrolments; reduction of 3.5% in the number of higher education institutions and 26% growth in the number of courses. In 1994, total enrolments on undergraduate courses were 1.7 million. The higher education system at that time consisted of 851 institutions. There has been a significant increase in enrolments and completions of higher education courses in Brazil after 1995.

The growth in supply of courses in recent years has being greater in towns in the interior than in state capitals. That an ‘interiorization’ of higher education is occurring because of an appreciable growth in the numbers of courses, so that many towns which previously had no HEI now have one. This has brought great benefits to students who had been excluded on a regional basis. Many who had not been able to move to the state capital to study at the higher level and now have the chance to do so in their hometown.

Socio-economic data concerning students in Brazilian higher education institutions show the marked presence of those coming from social groups with average and high incomes. It can even be stated that the supply of places is basically a response to the demand for higher education that these classes have created. With the ever-growing demand and a far greater number of students able and desiring to enter higher education, private institutions have had ample room to increase their supply.

The growing expansion of secondary education and the increase in the number of students leaving this level of education suggests that there is greater pressure for obtaining chances of education at a higher level coming precisely from the poorer classes in society. The growth in supply of courses in recent years has been greater in the poorest states and in towns in the interior than in the southwest or south and state capitals. Projections concerning access to higher education indicate the growth among students from lower-income families in the total numbers of new entrants to higher education. This is happening due to the increased flow of students coming from public secondary education and the increasing demand for better-qualified personnel with university degrees for jobs which previously did not require them.

One of the main areas for public policy in relation to access is the design of the means of financing studies and maintaining lower-income students in the system. The policies of increasing rates of schooling at higher level with improved quality at this level, especially in public institutions, increasing the number of places on evening courses, the broad re-design of the means of financing studies and maintaining lower-income students in the system, are some of the possible initiatives being put into place. The country has experienced several mechanisms for increasing access to higher education, including student loans programmes, scholarships in private institution in exchange of tax exemption and, quotas. The policy of quotas, which is very controversial, appears in this context as a transitional strategy. It is also important to emphasize that the expansion of evening classes in the public sector is still insufficient to meet the potential demand from students who are finishing their public secondary education during the evening ‘shift’. A great part of this potential demand has been met by the private sector. In Brazil, 68% of private enrolments are for the evening period, in which most courses do not require full-time attendance.

===Information society strategy period===

Most efforts in technological development and innovation have been concentrated in certain of Brazil’s universities and not in the business world. Research and development is a strength of higher education of Brazil. Today, almost all states have federal universities, and foundations to encourage research. However, these institutions do not have the same kind of autonomy, especially in terms of continuous, regular and guaranteed financing.

On the other side, Brazil’s scientific and technological development in the area of business is still at an initial stage. Brazilian companies have been late in incorporating and developing technology. It is also a consequence of the weakness of business sector's own capacity of research. On top of that, the collaboration between academia and industries is also very insufficient taking into account the needs of Brazilian development. Besides the poor performance of the Brazilian companies in relation to innovation, there is some prejudice that exist among Brazilian scholars in relation to the cooperation with the private sector.

Brazil shows a paradox: on the one hand, there is in the business sphere a low capacity for absorbing human resources into Science, Technology and Innovation (S&T&I); on the other hand, the system of training these resources has shown a large increase in supply especially in terms of postgraduate programmes. In the last two decades, Brazil’s scientific capacity has grown systematically year by year at an increasingly faster rate. The ranking of countries, according to their participation in world scientific production – Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) of the National Science Indicators (NSI) – is evidence of Brazil’s progress in this field. In 1981, Brazil was in 26th place; in 2001, it already occupied a worthy 18th position. On the other side, from 2000 to 2003 a slow growth was observed in technological development and innovation in Brazilian industry.

The fact that national research being concentrated in universities - in particular at the postgraduate level - makes it very dependent on the training of those with master’s and doctoral degrees. In this context, the importance of new strategies to bring the network of universities together with the world of business becomes more important. An important step in this direction was taken by the recently voted and approved Innovation Law. New means of finance – Sector Funds – and identification of priority sectors in industrial policy, as well as the formulation of the post graduate development plan by CAPES, indicates the desire to continue these trends.

It may be said that a move towards innovation and a clearer preparation for future expansion in R & D activities within growing companies is beginning to be developed recently. There are, however, obstacles hindering this development from proceeding more rapidly. These obstacles are mainly due to organizational inflexibility, problems in the marketplace and the absence of systemic synergy. However, what is most noticeable in the two periods studied is that over 30% of companies complain of lack of qualified personnel. This shows that, even where there is clear difficulty in absorbing manpower, there are questions of quality that have to be overcome.

==Education reform==
An important part of the Brazilian education reform began in 1995 with the creation of a federal department called the "Secretary of Distance Education" (SEED). The goal of SEED is to use information and communication technologies toward supporting and improving the quality and dissemination of education in this country with a population of 170 million people spread across nearly 1/2 of South America's land mass. Under SEED's "Proinfo" program, computers and access to the internet were issued to all public schools in Brazil, under the condition that the schools present an appropriate pedagogical strategy. To this end, each municipal government was allocated funding to establish a "Nucleus of Educational Technology" (NTE), making computer labs and networks available for teachers, and offering educational programs for teacher training.

Another important advance occurred in 1997, when the Brazilian Ministry of Education decreed that all K-12 school teachers have an undergraduate degree, and all university teachers a masters degree, by the year 2006. This meant that at least 50% of the Brazilian teachers and professors would have to upgrade their skills in a relatively short time, resulting in a huge and widespread demand for teacher training, as well as need to create solutions for efficient and effective teacher education.

The Distance Education Laboratory (LED) of the Federal University of Santa Catarina (South Brazil) has been meeting this challenge for several years by forming partnerships with educational institutions all over Brazil, implementing programs using Teleconferencing, Videoconferencing and Internet-based distance education programs, making it possible for teachers to avoid leaving their posts to learn. Although the subjects taught via the LED are varied, they are mainly related to information technology and education, according to each institution's specific needs and budget.

==Brazil virtual university==

http://www.rnp.br/en/news/2000/not-000201_en.html

==References==

some extra info on Brazil education system:
http://www.wwwords.co.uk/pdf/viewpdf.asp?j=elea&vol=3&issue=4&year=2006&article=9_Reifschneider_ELEA_3_4_web&id=134.58.253.57

http://www.usdla.org/html/journal/DEC02_Issue/article05.html

http://www.tfhe.net/resources/higher_edu_brazil.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Brazil

http://www.isep.org/students/placed/handbook_education.asp?country=7

File:Brazil-map.gif

2008-09-03T11:11:10Z

SandisZuciks:

Brazil

2008-09-02T12:46:30Z

SandisZuciks: /* References */

==Brazil in nutshell==

Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is a country in South America. It is the fifth largest country by geographical area, the fifth most populous country, and the fourth most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of over 7,491 kilometers (4,655 mi). It is bordered on the north by Venezuela, Suriname, Guyana and the overseas department of French Guiana; on the northwest by Colombia; on the west by Bolivia and Peru; on the southwest by Argentina and Paraguay and on the south by Uruguay. Numerous archipelagos are part of the Brazilian territory, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz.

Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until its independence in 1822. Initially independent as the Brazilian Empire, the country has been a republic since 1889, even though its bicameral legislature (now called Congress) dates back to 1824, when the first constitution was ratified. Its current Constitution defines Brazil as a Federal Republic. The Federation is formed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities.

Brazil is the world's tenth largest economy at market exchange rates and the ninth largest in purchasing power. Economic reforms have given the country new international projection. It is a founding member of the United Nations and of the Union of South American Nations. A predominantly Roman Catholic, Portuguese-speaking and multiethnic society, Brazil is also home to a diversity of wildlife, natural environments, and extensive natural resources in a variety of protected habitats.

==Brazilian education policy==

Education in Brazil is regulated by the Federal Government, through the Ministry of Education, which defines the guiding principles for the organization of educational programs. Local governments are responsible for establishing state and city educational programsfollowing the guidelines and using the funding supplied by the Federal Government. Brazilian children must attend school a minimum of 9 years, however the schooling is usually inadequate.

The 1988 Brazilian Constitution states that "education" is "a right for all, a duty of the State and of the family, and is to be promoted with the collaboration of society, with the objective of fully developing the person, preparing the individual for the exercise of citizenship and qualifying him/her for work".

The National Educational Bases and Guidelines Law enacted in 1961 says that, "national education, inspired in the principles of freedom and in the ideals of human solidarity, has the purpose of:

*understanding individual rights and responsibilities, as well as those of citizens, the State and other community groups;
*respecting man's dignity and fundamental freedoms;
*strengthening national unity and international solidarity;
*integral development of the human personality and his/her participation in the work towards common welfare;
*preparing individuals and society to master scientific and technological resources which will allow the use existing possibilities to common welfare;
*protecting, disseminating and expanding cultural heritage;
*condemning any unequal treatment resulting from philosophical, political or religious belief, as well as any social classes or racial prejudices.

==Higher Education==
===Summary of Higher Education===

Brazil has put significant resources into developing its higher education system over the past three decades. As a result, a system has evolved in which some institutions have achieved recognizable excellence in teaching and research, while, more generally, the majority of institutions have struggled to provide relevant, quality education at reasonable cost. Looked at in isolation, certain parts of the system are sound and productive. Taken as a whole, the system still has a number of large challenges to overcome.

About 15% of the age cohort is enrolled in higher education. This is quite low compared to other countries in the region (Argentina 36%; Chile 32%; Uruguay 30%; Venezuela, R.B. 29% [World Development Indicators 2001]) and to the OECD country average of 52% (OECD, 2001). Simply doubling the number of spaces offered, however, will not double the rate of coverage, because a demographic bulge of young Brazilians is reaching university age. Over the past 15 years, growth in private provision of higher education was roughly equal to the moderate growth of the university-age cohort, but now large absolute increases in enrollments would be needed simply to maintain the current rate of coverage. In addition, graduation rates from secondary schools are rising sharply and more older, working Brazilians are seeking tertiary degrees. In short, a larger percentage of a growing number of Brazilians are demanding higher education, and the system cannot keep pace with this demand under existing conditions.

Cost per student in public institutions, roughly R$14,000 per year in the federal system, is on par with OECD country averages while quality is not. Rigidities in funding and regulation create strong disincentives for cost-efficiency or quality. Public universities have been funded on the basis of input. Federal policy toward higher education, until recently, did not attempt to control costs or correlate funding to productivity. Other legislation and regulations, outside the control or influence of MEC, created built-in cost increases that did not improve the access, quality, or relevance of the education. University rectors have traditionally concerned themselves more with obtaining resources from the federal government than with managing the resources effectively within their institutions.

With a few notable exceptions, the quality of instruction and the relevance of the curriculum are below desirable standards. Historically, the Brazilian system - like those of continental Europe - is oriented to provide professional training rather than general or interdisciplinary education. Holders of a first university degree (graduação) are licensed to practice their profession by virtue of their diplomas. Such systems have been successful, productive, and of high quality under a variety of conditions. However, in Brazil, thanks largely to restrictive labor market regulation, the influence of professional associations in setting the curricula and the numbers of courses/places have served to limit the supply of professional labor, rather than to satisfy the demands of the labor market. Furthermore, in the Brazilian public system, a lack of coherence in research, teaching, and career advancement policies in public institutions has often led to a concentration of professors doing specialized research at the expense of undergraduate teaching. By contrast, many private institutions are driven by profit, and therefore do not undertake any research or pay salaries necessary to attract and retain high-quality professors.

The public system, which includes many, but not all of the country's finest institutions, provides higher quality education than the private sector, charges no tuition, and limits the number of places. Competition for admittance is fierce, and wealthy students do best because they can afford elite private high schools and special preparation courses for the entrance exams. Estimates on enrollment by income quintile show that two thirds of students are from the highest income quintile, while only about 5% are from the two lowest. It is a generally recognized problem that students from lower and lower middle class backgrounds have greater difficulty gaining entrance to the free, public system. If these individuals study at all, they are more likely to be in the private system, where they must pay tuition. Some financial assistance is available from the government and the institutions themselves, but it does not sufficiently address the needs of the students in the system, and much less the potential students who are excluded due to inability to pay.

Clearly, many important changes are underway within the system. The challenge is to focus attention on those that will promote the greatest progress in equitable access, quality, relevance, and efficiency. With this in mind, it is recommended the following steps. First, with respect to access: (a) the trend towards diversification through new instruments, such as sequential courses, and new institutional definitions (such as university centers) should continue; (b) the amount of targeted financial assistance for poor students should be increased; and (c) five and ten year enrollment increase targets should be identified, and progress toward improved coverage should be monitored closely. Additionally, the Government of Brazil has several policy options for increasing access to tertiary education that it may consider in the future. These include: i) increasing government and private funding of public institutions; in light of the current economic situation in Brazil, and the government's relatively high spending for higher education, it is unlikely that a large infusion of public funds for higher education is forthcoming. However, the addition of private resources could lead to an increased supply of places to the extent that the additional resources are used to educate and train students rather than to pay for administrative costs or research; ii) reducing costs per student at public institutions could be achieved in any number of ways and is best dealt with at the institutional level; and iii) charging tuition at public universities. This option is being used increasingly around the world as a means to maintain or increase institutional budgets. When combined with well thought out student aid schemes, this could have a positive impact on equity access.

===Higher Education structure===

Secondary education is mandatory for those wishing to pursue higher education. In addition, students must pass a competitive entrance examination (known as vestibular) for their specific course of study. The number of candidates per available place in the freshman class may be in excess of 30 or 40 to one in the most competitive courses at the top public universities. In some particular courses with small number of vacancies, this number can be as high as 200.

Higher education in Brazil, as in many nations, can be divided into both undergraduate and graduate work. In addition to providing education, Universities promote research and provide stand-alone classes to the community.

Higher education begins with undergraduate or sequential courses, which may offer different specialization choices such as academic or vocational education. Depending on choice, students may improve their educational background with postgraduate courses Stricto Sensu or Lato Sensu. Higher education has three bases: teaching, research and extension, each with their own specific contribution to make to a particular course. Diplomas and certificates are proof of having passed through higher education.

The standard Brazilian undergraduate bachelor's degree (graduação) is awarded in most fields of arts, humanities, social sciences, mathematical sciences, or natural sciences, and normally requires 4 years of post-secondary studies at a certified university. Students interested in teaching careers at secondary schools can take an additional year in lecturing courses (licenciatura). Five-year degrees are awarded in the so-called professional careers such as architecture, engineering, veterinary medicine, and law. The undergraduate degree in medicine requires in turn six years of full-time post-secondary studies. Residência, a two-to-five years internship in a teaching hospital is not required, but it is pursued by many professionals, especially those who wish to specialize in a given area.

Students who hold a four-year bachelor's degree or a five-year professional diploma are qualified for admission into graduate school (pós-graduação). Graduate master's degrees are normally awarded following the completion of a two-year program requiring satisfactory performance in a minimum number of advanced graduate courses (typically between five and eight classes), plus the submission by the degree candidate of a master's thesis (dissertação de mestrado) that is examined by an oral panel of at least three faculty members, including at least one external examiner. Doctoral degrees on the other hand normally require four years of full-time studies during which the degree candidate is required to complete further advanced graduate coursework, pass a doctoral qualifying exam, and submit an extensive doctoral dissertation (tese de doutorado) that must represent an original and relevant contribution to current knowledge in the field of study to which the dissertation topic belongs. The doctoral dissertation is examined in a final public oral exam administered by a panel of at least five faculty members, two of whom must be external examiners. Results from the dissertation are normally expected to be published in peer-reviewed journals, proceedings of international conferences, and/or in the form of books/book chapters.

===Problems in Higher education system===

The main problems the Brazilian higher education system is facing at present are the following:

1. Access: in spite of the rapid expansion during the last ten years, the system is still small compared with those of other countries in Latin America. Also, most students in higher education come from medium- and high-income groups. The poorest sections of the population can only enter higher education today as a result of the great expansion at secondary level.

2. Finance: the new sections of the population trying to enter higher education lack sufficient financial backing. Places in the free public institutions are very restricted and the cost of private education is very high in terms of the incomes of these new groups aspiring to enter higher education.

3. Quality: the quality of higher education institutions in Brazil is very variable. Alongside institutions with international reputations we find many with low levels of teaching and little encouragement to undertake research.

4. Efficiency: public institutions - usually of better quality than the rest - suffer great problems of inefficiency in the use of public resources, resulting in a relatively small number of students attending them in terms of the amount of funds invested.

5. Curricular structure unrelated to the needs of the labour market: the content of higher education courses in Brazil lacks the flexibility to adapt to the needs of the labour market.

6. Little connection with the productive sector: in general, technological research and development is carried out in universities with little connection with the productive sector.

===Expansion and access to Higher Education===

Higher education enrolments more than doubled in the last ten years. In spite of this significant growth, the gross rate of enrolments at the higher level in Brazil is very small when compared to international levels, even when compared to some of other comparable countries in Latin America. Nevertheless, there is a reasonable consensus of opinion on the need to settle on the most effective way to provide a more lasting solution to the problems of access and equity in higher education. In the 1980s growth in enrolments did not even keep up with population growth.

Between 1980 and 1994 expansion of higher education was quite restricted: growth of only 20% in enrolments; reduction of 3.5% in the number of higher education institutions and 26% growth in the number of courses. In 1994, total enrolments on undergraduate courses were 1.7 million. The higher education system at that time consisted of 851 institutions. There has been a significant increase in enrolments and completions of higher education courses in Brazil after 1995.

The growth in supply of courses in recent years has being greater in towns in the interior than in state capitals. That an ‘interiorization’ of higher education is occurring because of an appreciable growth in the numbers of courses, so that many towns which previously had no HEI now have one. This has brought great benefits to students who had been excluded on a regional basis. Many who had not been able to move to the state capital to study at the higher level and now have the chance to do so in their hometown.

Socio-economic data concerning students in Brazilian higher education institutions show the marked presence of those coming from social groups with average and high incomes. It can even be stated that the supply of places is basically a response to the demand for higher education that these classes have created. With the ever-growing demand and a far greater number of students able and desiring to enter higher education, private institutions have had ample room to increase their supply.

The growing expansion of secondary education and the increase in the number of students leaving this level of education suggests that there is greater pressure for obtaining chances of education at a higher level coming precisely from the poorer classes in society. The growth in supply of courses in recent years has been greater in the poorest states and in towns in the interior than in the southwest or south and state capitals. Projections concerning access to higher education indicate the growth among students from lower-income families in the total numbers of new entrants to higher education. This is happening due to the increased flow of students coming from public secondary education and the increasing demand for better-qualified personnel with university degrees for jobs which previously did not require them.

One of the main areas for public policy in relation to access is the design of the means of financing studies and maintaining lower-income students in the system. The policies of increasing rates of schooling at higher level with improved quality at this level, especially in public institutions, increasing the number of places on evening courses, the broad re-design of the means of financing studies and maintaining lower-income students in the system, are some of the possible initiatives being put into place. The country has experienced several mechanisms for increasing access to higher education, including student loans programmes, scholarships in private institution in exchange of tax exemption and, quotas. The policy of quotas, which is very controversial, appears in this context as a transitional strategy. It is also important to emphasize that the expansion of evening classes in the public sector is still insufficient to meet the potential demand from students who are finishing their public secondary education during the evening ‘shift’. A great part of this potential demand has been met by the private sector. In Brazil, 68% of private enrolments are for the evening period, in which most courses do not require full-time attendance.

===Information society strategy period===

Most efforts in technological development and innovation have been concentrated in certain of Brazil’s universities and not in the business world. Research and development is a strength of higher education of Brazil. Today, almost all states have federal universities, and foundations to encourage research. However, these institutions do not have the same kind of autonomy, especially in terms of continuous, regular and guaranteed financing.

On the other side, Brazil’s scientific and technological development in the area of business is still at an initial stage. Brazilian companies have been late in incorporating and developing technology. It is also a consequence of the weakness of business sector's own capacity of research. On top of that, the collaboration between academia and industries is also very insufficient taking into account the needs of Brazilian development. Besides the poor performance of the Brazilian companies in relation to innovation, there is some prejudice that exist among Brazilian scholars in relation to the cooperation with the private sector.

Brazil shows a paradox: on the one hand, there is in the business sphere a low capacity for absorbing human resources into Science, Technology and Innovation (S&T&I); on the other hand, the system of training these resources has shown a large increase in supply especially in terms of postgraduate programmes. In the last two decades, Brazil’s scientific capacity has grown systematically year by year at an increasingly faster rate. The ranking of countries, according to their participation in world scientific production – Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) of the National Science Indicators (NSI) – is evidence of Brazil’s progress in this field. In 1981, Brazil was in 26th place; in 2001, it already occupied a worthy 18th position. On the other side, from 2000 to 2003 a slow growth was observed in technological development and innovation in Brazilian industry.

The fact that national research being concentrated in universities - in particular at the postgraduate level - makes it very dependent on the training of those with master’s and doctoral degrees. In this context, the importance of new strategies to bring the network of universities together with the world of business becomes more important. An important step in this direction was taken by the recently voted and approved Innovation Law. New means of finance – Sector Funds – and identification of priority sectors in industrial policy, as well as the formulation of the post graduate development plan by CAPES, indicates the desire to continue these trends.

It may be said that a move towards innovation and a clearer preparation for future expansion in R & D activities within growing companies is beginning to be developed recently. There are, however, obstacles hindering this development from proceeding more rapidly. These obstacles are mainly due to organizational inflexibility, problems in the marketplace and the absence of systemic synergy. However, what is most noticeable in the two periods studied is that over 30% of companies complain of lack of qualified personnel. This shows that, even where there is clear difficulty in absorbing manpower, there are questions of quality that have to be overcome.

==Education reform==
An important part of the Brazilian education reform began in 1995 with the creation of a federal department called the "Secretary of Distance Education" (SEED). The goal of SEED is to use information and communication technologies toward supporting and improving the quality and dissemination of education in this country with a population of 170 million people spread across nearly 1/2 of South America's land mass. Under SEED's "Proinfo" program, computers and access to the internet were issued to all public schools in Brazil, under the condition that the schools present an appropriate pedagogical strategy. To this end, each municipal government was allocated funding to establish a "Nucleus of Educational Technology" (NTE), making computer labs and networks available for teachers, and offering educational programs for teacher training.

Another important advance occurred in 1997, when the Brazilian Ministry of Education decreed that all K-12 school teachers have an undergraduate degree, and all university teachers a masters degree, by the year 2006. This meant that at least 50% of the Brazilian teachers and professors would have to upgrade their skills in a relatively short time, resulting in a huge and widespread demand for teacher training, as well as need to create solutions for efficient and effective teacher education.

The Distance Education Laboratory (LED) of the Federal University of Santa Catarina (South Brazil) has been meeting this challenge for several years by forming partnerships with educational institutions all over Brazil, implementing programs using Teleconferencing, Videoconferencing and Internet-based distance education programs, making it possible for teachers to avoid leaving their posts to learn. Although the subjects taught via the LED are varied, they are mainly related to information technology and education, according to each institution's specific needs and budget.

==Brazil virtual university==

http://www.rnp.br/en/news/2000/not-000201_en.html

==References==

some extra info on Brazil education system:
http://www.wwwords.co.uk/pdf/viewpdf.asp?j=elea&vol=3&issue=4&year=2006&article=9_Reifschneider_ELEA_3_4_web&id=134.58.253.57

http://www.usdla.org/html/journal/DEC02_Issue/article05.html

http://www.tfhe.net/resources/higher_edu_brazil.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Brazil

http://www.isep.org/students/placed/handbook_education.asp?country=7

Brazil

2008-09-02T08:52:03Z

SandisZuciks:

==Brazil in nutshell==

Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is a country in South America. It is the fifth largest country by geographical area, the fifth most populous country, and the fourth most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of over 7,491 kilometers (4,655 mi). It is bordered on the north by Venezuela, Suriname, Guyana and the overseas department of French Guiana; on the northwest by Colombia; on the west by Bolivia and Peru; on the southwest by Argentina and Paraguay and on the south by Uruguay. Numerous archipelagos are part of the Brazilian territory, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz.

Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until its independence in 1822. Initially independent as the Brazilian Empire, the country has been a republic since 1889, even though its bicameral legislature (now called Congress) dates back to 1824, when the first constitution was ratified. Its current Constitution defines Brazil as a Federal Republic. The Federation is formed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities.

Brazil is the world's tenth largest economy at market exchange rates and the ninth largest in purchasing power. Economic reforms have given the country new international projection. It is a founding member of the United Nations and of the Union of South American Nations. A predominantly Roman Catholic, Portuguese-speaking and multiethnic society, Brazil is also home to a diversity of wildlife, natural environments, and extensive natural resources in a variety of protected habitats.

==Brazilian education policy==

Education in Brazil is regulated by the Federal Government, through the Ministry of Education, which defines the guiding principles for the organization of educational programs. Local governments are responsible for establishing state and city educational programsfollowing the guidelines and using the funding supplied by the Federal Government. Brazilian children must attend school a minimum of 9 years, however the schooling is usually inadequate.

The 1988 Brazilian Constitution states that "education" is "a right for all, a duty of the State and of the family, and is to be promoted with the collaboration of society, with the objective of fully developing the person, preparing the individual for the exercise of citizenship and qualifying him/her for work".

The National Educational Bases and Guidelines Law enacted in 1961 says that, "national education, inspired in the principles of freedom and in the ideals of human solidarity, has the purpose of:

*understanding individual rights and responsibilities, as well as those of citizens, the State and other community groups;
*respecting man's dignity and fundamental freedoms;
*strengthening national unity and international solidarity;
*integral development of the human personality and his/her participation in the work towards common welfare;
*preparing individuals and society to master scientific and technological resources which will allow the use existing possibilities to common welfare;
*protecting, disseminating and expanding cultural heritage;
*condemning any unequal treatment resulting from philosophical, political or religious belief, as well as any social classes or racial prejudices.

==Higher Education==
===Summary of Higher Education===

Brazil has put significant resources into developing its higher education system over the past three decades. As a result, a system has evolved in which some institutions have achieved recognizable excellence in teaching and research, while, more generally, the majority of institutions have struggled to provide relevant, quality education at reasonable cost. Looked at in isolation, certain parts of the system are sound and productive. Taken as a whole, the system still has a number of large challenges to overcome.

About 15% of the age cohort is enrolled in higher education. This is quite low compared to other countries in the region (Argentina 36%; Chile 32%; Uruguay 30%; Venezuela, R.B. 29% [World Development Indicators 2001]) and to the OECD country average of 52% (OECD, 2001). Simply doubling the number of spaces offered, however, will not double the rate of coverage, because a demographic bulge of young Brazilians is reaching university age. Over the past 15 years, growth in private provision of higher education was roughly equal to the moderate growth of the university-age cohort, but now large absolute increases in enrollments would be needed simply to maintain the current rate of coverage. In addition, graduation rates from secondary schools are rising sharply and more older, working Brazilians are seeking tertiary degrees. In short, a larger percentage of a growing number of Brazilians are demanding higher education, and the system cannot keep pace with this demand under existing conditions.

Cost per student in public institutions, roughly R$14,000 per year in the federal system, is on par with OECD country averages while quality is not. Rigidities in funding and regulation create strong disincentives for cost-efficiency or quality. Public universities have been funded on the basis of input. Federal policy toward higher education, until recently, did not attempt to control costs or correlate funding to productivity. Other legislation and regulations, outside the control or influence of MEC, created built-in cost increases that did not improve the access, quality, or relevance of the education. University rectors have traditionally concerned themselves more with obtaining resources from the federal government than with managing the resources effectively within their institutions.

With a few notable exceptions, the quality of instruction and the relevance of the curriculum are below desirable standards. Historically, the Brazilian system - like those of continental Europe - is oriented to provide professional training rather than general or interdisciplinary education. Holders of a first university degree (graduação) are licensed to practice their profession by virtue of their diplomas. Such systems have been successful, productive, and of high quality under a variety of conditions. However, in Brazil, thanks largely to restrictive labor market regulation, the influence of professional associations in setting the curricula and the numbers of courses/places have served to limit the supply of professional labor, rather than to satisfy the demands of the labor market. Furthermore, in the Brazilian public system, a lack of coherence in research, teaching, and career advancement policies in public institutions has often led to a concentration of professors doing specialized research at the expense of undergraduate teaching. By contrast, many private institutions are driven by profit, and therefore do not undertake any research or pay salaries necessary to attract and retain high-quality professors.

The public system, which includes many, but not all of the country's finest institutions, provides higher quality education than the private sector, charges no tuition, and limits the number of places. Competition for admittance is fierce, and wealthy students do best because they can afford elite private high schools and special preparation courses for the entrance exams. Estimates on enrollment by income quintile show that two thirds of students are from the highest income quintile, while only about 5% are from the two lowest. It is a generally recognized problem that students from lower and lower middle class backgrounds have greater difficulty gaining entrance to the free, public system. If these individuals study at all, they are more likely to be in the private system, where they must pay tuition. Some financial assistance is available from the government and the institutions themselves, but it does not sufficiently address the needs of the students in the system, and much less the potential students who are excluded due to inability to pay.

Clearly, many important changes are underway within the system. The challenge is to focus attention on those that will promote the greatest progress in equitable access, quality, relevance, and efficiency. With this in mind, it is recommended the following steps. First, with respect to access: (a) the trend towards diversification through new instruments, such as sequential courses, and new institutional definitions (such as university centers) should continue; (b) the amount of targeted financial assistance for poor students should be increased; and (c) five and ten year enrollment increase targets should be identified, and progress toward improved coverage should be monitored closely. Additionally, the Government of Brazil has several policy options for increasing access to tertiary education that it may consider in the future. These include: i) increasing government and private funding of public institutions; in light of the current economic situation in Brazil, and the government's relatively high spending for higher education, it is unlikely that a large infusion of public funds for higher education is forthcoming. However, the addition of private resources could lead to an increased supply of places to the extent that the additional resources are used to educate and train students rather than to pay for administrative costs or research; ii) reducing costs per student at public institutions could be achieved in any number of ways and is best dealt with at the institutional level; and iii) charging tuition at public universities. This option is being used increasingly around the world as a means to maintain or increase institutional budgets. When combined with well thought out student aid schemes, this could have a positive impact on equity access.

===Higher Education structure===

Secondary education is mandatory for those wishing to pursue higher education. In addition, students must pass a competitive entrance examination (known as vestibular) for their specific course of study. The number of candidates per available place in the freshman class may be in excess of 30 or 40 to one in the most competitive courses at the top public universities. In some particular courses with small number of vacancies, this number can be as high as 200.

Higher education in Brazil, as in many nations, can be divided into both undergraduate and graduate work. In addition to providing education, Universities promote research and provide stand-alone classes to the community.

Higher education begins with undergraduate or sequential courses, which may offer different specialization choices such as academic or vocational education. Depending on choice, students may improve their educational background with postgraduate courses Stricto Sensu or Lato Sensu. Higher education has three bases: teaching, research and extension, each with their own specific contribution to make to a particular course. Diplomas and certificates are proof of having passed through higher education.

The standard Brazilian undergraduate bachelor's degree (graduação) is awarded in most fields of arts, humanities, social sciences, mathematical sciences, or natural sciences, and normally requires 4 years of post-secondary studies at a certified university. Students interested in teaching careers at secondary schools can take an additional year in lecturing courses (licenciatura). Five-year degrees are awarded in the so-called professional careers such as architecture, engineering, veterinary medicine, and law. The undergraduate degree in medicine requires in turn six years of full-time post-secondary studies. Residência, a two-to-five years internship in a teaching hospital is not required, but it is pursued by many professionals, especially those who wish to specialize in a given area.

Students who hold a four-year bachelor's degree or a five-year professional diploma are qualified for admission into graduate school (pós-graduação). Graduate master's degrees are normally awarded following the completion of a two-year program requiring satisfactory performance in a minimum number of advanced graduate courses (typically between five and eight classes), plus the submission by the degree candidate of a master's thesis (dissertação de mestrado) that is examined by an oral panel of at least three faculty members, including at least one external examiner. Doctoral degrees on the other hand normally require four years of full-time studies during which the degree candidate is required to complete further advanced graduate coursework, pass a doctoral qualifying exam, and submit an extensive doctoral dissertation (tese de doutorado) that must represent an original and relevant contribution to current knowledge in the field of study to which the dissertation topic belongs. The doctoral dissertation is examined in a final public oral exam administered by a panel of at least five faculty members, two of whom must be external examiners. Results from the dissertation are normally expected to be published in peer-reviewed journals, proceedings of international conferences, and/or in the form of books/book chapters.

===Problems in Higher education system===

The main problems the Brazilian higher education system is facing at present are the following:

1. Access: in spite of the rapid expansion during the last ten years, the system is still small compared with those of other countries in Latin America. Also, most students in higher education come from medium- and high-income groups. The poorest sections of the population can only enter higher education today as a result of the great expansion at secondary level.

2. Finance: the new sections of the population trying to enter higher education lack sufficient financial backing. Places in the free public institutions are very restricted and the cost of private education is very high in terms of the incomes of these new groups aspiring to enter higher education.

3. Quality: the quality of higher education institutions in Brazil is very variable. Alongside institutions with international reputations we find many with low levels of teaching and little encouragement to undertake research.

4. Efficiency: public institutions - usually of better quality than the rest - suffer great problems of inefficiency in the use of public resources, resulting in a relatively small number of students attending them in terms of the amount of funds invested.

5. Curricular structure unrelated to the needs of the labour market: the content of higher education courses in Brazil lacks the flexibility to adapt to the needs of the labour market.

6. Little connection with the productive sector: in general, technological research and development is carried out in universities with little connection with the productive sector.

===Expansion and access to Higher Education===

Higher education enrolments more than doubled in the last ten years. In spite of this significant growth, the gross rate of enrolments at the higher level in Brazil is very small when compared to international levels, even when compared to some of other comparable countries in Latin America. Nevertheless, there is a reasonable consensus of opinion on the need to settle on the most effective way to provide a more lasting solution to the problems of access and equity in higher education. In the 1980s growth in enrolments did not even keep up with population growth.

Between 1980 and 1994 expansion of higher education was quite restricted: growth of only 20% in enrolments; reduction of 3.5% in the number of higher education institutions and 26% growth in the number of courses. In 1994, total enrolments on undergraduate courses were 1.7 million. The higher education system at that time consisted of 851 institutions. There has been a significant increase in enrolments and completions of higher education courses in Brazil after 1995.

The growth in supply of courses in recent years has being greater in towns in the interior than in state capitals. That an ‘interiorization’ of higher education is occurring because of an appreciable growth in the numbers of courses, so that many towns which previously had no HEI now have one. This has brought great benefits to students who had been excluded on a regional basis. Many who had not been able to move to the state capital to study at the higher level and now have the chance to do so in their hometown.

Socio-economic data concerning students in Brazilian higher education institutions show the marked presence of those coming from social groups with average and high incomes. It can even be stated that the supply of places is basically a response to the demand for higher education that these classes have created. With the ever-growing demand and a far greater number of students able and desiring to enter higher education, private institutions have had ample room to increase their supply.

The growing expansion of secondary education and the increase in the number of students leaving this level of education suggests that there is greater pressure for obtaining chances of education at a higher level coming precisely from the poorer classes in society. The growth in supply of courses in recent years has been greater in the poorest states and in towns in the interior than in the southwest or south and state capitals. Projections concerning access to higher education indicate the growth among students from lower-income families in the total numbers of new entrants to higher education. This is happening due to the increased flow of students coming from public secondary education and the increasing demand for better-qualified personnel with university degrees for jobs which previously did not require them.

One of the main areas for public policy in relation to access is the design of the means of financing studies and maintaining lower-income students in the system. The policies of increasing rates of schooling at higher level with improved quality at this level, especially in public institutions, increasing the number of places on evening courses, the broad re-design of the means of financing studies and maintaining lower-income students in the system, are some of the possible initiatives being put into place. The country has experienced several mechanisms for increasing access to higher education, including student loans programmes, scholarships in private institution in exchange of tax exemption and, quotas. The policy of quotas, which is very controversial, appears in this context as a transitional strategy. It is also important to emphasize that the expansion of evening classes in the public sector is still insufficient to meet the potential demand from students who are finishing their public secondary education during the evening ‘shift’. A great part of this potential demand has been met by the private sector. In Brazil, 68% of private enrolments are for the evening period, in which most courses do not require full-time attendance.

===Information society strategy period===

Most efforts in technological development and innovation have been concentrated in certain of Brazil’s universities and not in the business world. Research and development is a strength of higher education of Brazil. Today, almost all states have federal universities, and foundations to encourage research. However, these institutions do not have the same kind of autonomy, especially in terms of continuous, regular and guaranteed financing.

On the other side, Brazil’s scientific and technological development in the area of business is still at an initial stage. Brazilian companies have been late in incorporating and developing technology. It is also a consequence of the weakness of business sector's own capacity of research. On top of that, the collaboration between academia and industries is also very insufficient taking into account the needs of Brazilian development. Besides the poor performance of the Brazilian companies in relation to innovation, there is some prejudice that exist among Brazilian scholars in relation to the cooperation with the private sector.

Brazil shows a paradox: on the one hand, there is in the business sphere a low capacity for absorbing human resources into Science, Technology and Innovation (S&T&I); on the other hand, the system of training these resources has shown a large increase in supply especially in terms of postgraduate programmes. In the last two decades, Brazil’s scientific capacity has grown systematically year by year at an increasingly faster rate. The ranking of countries, according to their participation in world scientific production – Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) of the National Science Indicators (NSI) – is evidence of Brazil’s progress in this field. In 1981, Brazil was in 26th place; in 2001, it already occupied a worthy 18th position. On the other side, from 2000 to 2003 a slow growth was observed in technological development and innovation in Brazilian industry.

The fact that national research being concentrated in universities - in particular at the postgraduate level - makes it very dependent on the training of those with master’s and doctoral degrees. In this context, the importance of new strategies to bring the network of universities together with the world of business becomes more important. An important step in this direction was taken by the recently voted and approved Innovation Law. New means of finance – Sector Funds – and identification of priority sectors in industrial policy, as well as the formulation of the post graduate development plan by CAPES, indicates the desire to continue these trends.

It may be said that a move towards innovation and a clearer preparation for future expansion in R & D activities within growing companies is beginning to be developed recently. There are, however, obstacles hindering this development from proceeding more rapidly. These obstacles are mainly due to organizational inflexibility, problems in the marketplace and the absence of systemic synergy. However, what is most noticeable in the two periods studied is that over 30% of companies complain of lack of qualified personnel. This shows that, even where there is clear difficulty in absorbing manpower, there are questions of quality that have to be overcome.

==Education reform==
An important part of the Brazilian education reform began in 1995 with the creation of a federal department called the "Secretary of Distance Education" (SEED). The goal of SEED is to use information and communication technologies toward supporting and improving the quality and dissemination of education in this country with a population of 170 million people spread across nearly 1/2 of South America's land mass. Under SEED's "Proinfo" program, computers and access to the internet were issued to all public schools in Brazil, under the condition that the schools present an appropriate pedagogical strategy. To this end, each municipal government was allocated funding to establish a "Nucleus of Educational Technology" (NTE), making computer labs and networks available for teachers, and offering educational programs for teacher training.

Another important advance occurred in 1997, when the Brazilian Ministry of Education decreed that all K-12 school teachers have an undergraduate degree, and all university teachers a masters degree, by the year 2006. This meant that at least 50% of the Brazilian teachers and professors would have to upgrade their skills in a relatively short time, resulting in a huge and widespread demand for teacher training, as well as need to create solutions for efficient and effective teacher education.

The Distance Education Laboratory (LED) of the Federal University of Santa Catarina (South Brazil) has been meeting this challenge for several years by forming partnerships with educational institutions all over Brazil, implementing programs using Teleconferencing, Videoconferencing and Internet-based distance education programs, making it possible for teachers to avoid leaving their posts to learn. Although the subjects taught via the LED are varied, they are mainly related to information technology and education, according to each institution's specific needs and budget.

==Brazil virtual university==

http://www.rnp.br/en/news/2000/not-000201_en.html

==References==

http://www.usdla.org/html/journal/DEC02_Issue/article05.html

http://www.tfhe.net/resources/higher_edu_brazil.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Brazil

http://www.isep.org/students/placed/handbook_education.asp?country=7

Poland

2008-09-01T12:22:42Z

SandisZuciks: /* Poland */

===Poland===
[[Image:Poland-map.gif|right|400px|source:https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pl.html]]
Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. Poland is bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north. The total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres making it the 69th largest country in the world and 9th in Europe. Poland has a population of over 38 million people, which makes it the 33rd most populous country in the world.

The establishment of a Polish state is often identified with the adoption of Christianity by its ruler Mieszko I in 966, when the state covered territory similar to that of present-day Poland. Poland became a kingdom in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a long association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by uniting to form the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Commonwealth collapsed in 1795, and its territory was partitioned among Prussia, Russia, and Austria. Poland regained its independence in 1918 after World War I but lost it again in World War II, occupied by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. Poland lost over six million citizens in World War II, and emerged several years later as a socialist republic within the Eastern Bloc under strong Soviet influence. In 1989 communist rule was overthrown and Poland became what is constitutionally known as the "Third Polish Republic". Poland is a unitary state made up of sixteen voivodeships. Poland is also a member of the European Union, NATO and OECD.

==Educational system in Poland==

The Polish education system seems to be very complicated. Children started their education at the age of seven and the compulsory age lasts to sixteen. Polish schools are usually public. They are also co-educational.
At first, children are sent to the primary school. It lasts six years. They are learnt such subjects as: languages, math, music, art, history and physical education. After graduating the sixth class they are supposed to take the first serious exam, but the results of this exam don't determine what type of junior high schools the students will attend to. Then children chose the junior high school and they attend there for three years.

At this school there are a lot of additional subjects such as chemistry, social studies, biology and geography. Before they graduate they have to pass the final exams which is consisted of two sections: a humanistic one and a science one. At the age of sixteen they leave this school and if they would like to educate further they take the exam to the secondary school.

They chose among high school, technical school or vocational school. If they are going to study at the university, they start a high school or a technical school. If they don't want to study, they choose the vocational. After three or four year of attending to the secondary school, most of students take Matura-exam. Before they start to study, they have to pass the entrance exam.
To study at the university you are required to get the good results of Matura-exam. You will receive the Bachelor's Degree after three years of studing and present your thesis. After next two years of complementary Master-level courses you will get the Master's Degree. Of course the Master thesis is necessary. You can also choose the five-year-study, but in this case you receive only the Master Degree, you don't get the Bachelor's Degree.
complementary Master-level courses - studia magisterskie uzupełniające

==Higher education==

Polish Higher Education System

The institutions of higher education in Poland operate the following types of courses of study:
*professional higher studies (3-4 years): the graduates obtain a professional degree of licentiate or engineer; (BA)
*master’s studies (5-6 years); the graduate obtains, depending on the study course profile, a professional master’s degree [magister] or an equivalent degree; (MA)
*postgraduate master’s studies (2-2.5 years) for graduates of professional higher studies; the graduate obtains a professional master’s degree or an equivalent degree; (PhD)
*doctoral studies (3-4 years): eligible candidates will be graduates of higher studies with a professional master’s degree, working for an academic degree of doctor;
*postgraduate studies (1-2 years) – for graduates of all types of HEI.

Institutions of higher education run full-time courses, extramural courses, evening courses and extern courses. The full-time mode is the basic system of studies.

There are two types of higher education institution:
*university-type HEIs offering studies in the humanities, sciences, medical sciences, economics, pedagogy, the arts, and military studies;
*professional HEIs which educate students in specific professional areas and prepare them for practicing a profession.

Professional Degrees Awarded to HEI Graduates in Poland

In Poland the graduates of institutions of higher education receive following degrees:
*licentiate [licencjat] – a degree obtained on completion of a professional higher education course lasting 3-3.5 years;
*engineer [inżynier] - a degree obtained on completion of a professional higher education course in a field of engineering, agriculture or economics, lasting 3.5 – 4 years;
*master [magister] and equivalent degrees: master of arts, master of engineering, master of engineering – architect, physician, dentist-physician, veterinary physician – awarded on completion of 5-6 years’ continuous master’s studies. Another way? to obtain a master’s degree is to complete a 2-2.5- year postgraduate master’s course for holders of a higher professional education diploma.

To obtain these professional degrees a student must pass performance assessment for each of the subjects and practical training assignments on his or her curriculum, present and defend his or her diploma dissertation and pass the diploma examination.

A HEI graduate receives a diploma of completion of studies in a given field of study, three copies of the diploma and – at his or her request – a copy of the diploma translated into a foreign language.

Graduates who continue education at doctoral courses or pursue research can work for the following academic degrees:

*doctor [doktor] : a degree awarded to one who passed doctoral examinations and proposed and successfully defended a doctoral dissertation [project?]. Those wishing to work for the academic degree of doctor must hold a professional degree of master or an equivalent degree;
*habilitated doctor [doktor habiliowany]: this degree is awarded to candidates who hold a doctor's degree, have important academic or artistic achievements, have proposed a habilitation dissertation and successfully completed the habilitation procedure.

Professor [profesor] is an academic degree awarded by the President of the Republic of Poland.

===Study Course Structure and the Academic Year===

The academic year consists of thirty weeks of study, with about thirty hours of tuition per week, and is structured into two semesters:

*the winter semester (from October 1st to around February 15th of the next calendar year) covers fifteen weeks of study and the winter examination period;
*the summer semester (from around February 16th to September 30th) covers fifteen weeks of study and the summer examination period;
*as a rule, one month of the summer holidays is set aside for integrated student placements.

Each HEI sets its own schedule of academic year. Tuition is conducted in the form of lectures, classes, seminars, laboratory classes and roundtable sessions. The student’s rights and duties with regard to the course of study are laid down in a given HEI’s Study Rules.

Areas of Study

Every higher school publishes on its web site information about the areas of study in which it offers education..

Examinations

Students sit examinations separately in each subject. A performance assessment period covers either one semester or one academic year. To successfully complete a semester (or a year) a student must receive passing (i.e. at least “satisfactory”) marks for all assessments and examinations in the subjects covered by his or her curriculum and to obtain performance assessment credits for all integrated placements on his or her curriculum.

Each HEI identifies its grading scale in its Study Rules. The most common scale comprises the following marks:

*very good (5)
*good plus (4+ or 4.5)
*good (4)
*satisfactory plus (3+ or 3.5)
*satisfactory (3)
*failing (2).

In addition to this grading scale Polish HEIs have been phasing in the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) under which a certain number of credits is allocated to a given subject, independently of marks awarded. Depending on a subject, passing a performance assessment can earn the student from 2 to 12-14 ECTS credits. On passing an examination the student should request that this be put on his or her record together with the credits awarded. To complete successfully a year or a semester a student must collect, respectively, 30 or 60 credits. With the ECTS system in place, more and more Polish students can do part of their studies at foreign higher education institutions. Also, ECTS credits allow foreign students’ periods of study at Polish HEIs to be recognized.

Diploma Projects and Diploma Examinations

To obtain a diploma of completion of higher education a student must:

*pass a performance assessment for all subjects, integrated placements and practical work sessions and pass all examinations covered by the study programme set for a given field of study;
*present, at an appointed date, a diploma project and obtain a passing mark for it;
*pass the diploma examination.

===Present times in education===

As of 2001 there were 1,224,600 students enrolled in the publicly funded universities and colleges. In the private universities and colleges there were 519,100 students. This number has quadrupled over previous enrollment figures. This rise in the rate of enrollment in higher education strongly influences the qualification level of the youngest age group making up the workforce.

Considering that an individual's active life lasts about forty years, more time is needed to raise the level of adult education. In a 1995 census 6.8% of the Polish population have higher education.

The impact of the Bologna Declaration on education in Poland made the diploma supplement mandatory for all diplomas in Poland. Polish universities then pushed for the European Credit Transfer System which was a quality assessment and accreditation program. There had been no official national system of credit transfer and accumulation in Poland previously. Therefore; a credit-point system was introduced for particular specialization.

The promotion of mobility had a goal to reach 10 percent. The obstacle in student mobility is differences in the organization of the academic year in European countries. The number of students coming to Poland is about 10 times lower than other countries and the need for other European languages was evident. Warsaw had 300 students in English and in Technical University of Lodz there were 500 students in English and French.

The European co-operation in quality assurance, Poland is trying to solve the problem of quality and accreditation in a highly professional way. The process of accreditation of study programs at Polish higher education institutions has been significantly accelerated. There are 2 faces: the state-controlled accreditation and the academic community-owned accreditation. For Poland, belonging to the European family is very important they do not want to be disseminated in Poland. For them, lifelong learning and promoting the European higher education area is their primary concern, they also believe that the European higher education area is best promoted by following the Bologna Declaration priorities and does not need any further comments.

==Future of Poland Education system==

By 2010 Poland is hoping that the number of people enrolled in higher education should rise 35-40% and 40-45% in 2020. These increases will raise new challenges for higher education in regards to its accessibility, particularly for the inhabitants of villages and small towns. Ideally Poland wants to decrease the differences in the level of civilization between the country regions and the various social groups. With the spreading effects of the metropolises, the situating of universities and colleges in the medium-sized cities offers a chance to establish education centers of high quality and the possibility of creating innovative processes. The large well-equipped private higher education institutions with increasingly stable staffs are expected to prosper.

== Virtual Initiatives in HE ==
=== The Polish Virtual University (PUW)===
"The [http://www.puw.pl/english/ Polish Virtual University (PUW)] is a joint project of [http://www.umcs.lublin.pl Maria Curie-Sklodowska University in Lublin] and [http://www.wshe.lodz.pl/index.php?j=eng Academy of Humanities and Economics in Lodz].

We offer study programmes and extension courses over the Internet. Our task is to support traditional lectures and trainings as well as promote modern teaching methods."

==References==

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_poland

''Source:''[http://www.puw.pl/english/ Polish Virtual University (PUW)'s English home page]

''Documents of Relevance:''
* [http://www.puw.pl/elearning.html?akcja=elearning PUW web page on e-learning (in Polish)]

Poland

2008-09-01T12:21:36Z

SandisZuciks: /* Poland */

===Poland===
[[Image:Poland-map.gif|right|400px]]
Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. Poland is bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north. The total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres making it the 69th largest country in the world and 9th in Europe. Poland has a population of over 38 million people, which makes it the 33rd most populous country in the world.

The establishment of a Polish state is often identified with the adoption of Christianity by its ruler Mieszko I in 966, when the state covered territory similar to that of present-day Poland. Poland became a kingdom in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a long association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by uniting to form the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Commonwealth collapsed in 1795, and its territory was partitioned among Prussia, Russia, and Austria. Poland regained its independence in 1918 after World War I but lost it again in World War II, occupied by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. Poland lost over six million citizens in World War II, and emerged several years later as a socialist republic within the Eastern Bloc under strong Soviet influence. In 1989 communist rule was overthrown and Poland became what is constitutionally known as the "Third Polish Republic". Poland is a unitary state made up of sixteen voivodeships. Poland is also a member of the European Union, NATO and OECD.

==Educational system in Poland==

The Polish education system seems to be very complicated. Children started their education at the age of seven and the compulsory age lasts to sixteen. Polish schools are usually public. They are also co-educational.
At first, children are sent to the primary school. It lasts six years. They are learnt such subjects as: languages, math, music, art, history and physical education. After graduating the sixth class they are supposed to take the first serious exam, but the results of this exam don't determine what type of junior high schools the students will attend to. Then children chose the junior high school and they attend there for three years.

At this school there are a lot of additional subjects such as chemistry, social studies, biology and geography. Before they graduate they have to pass the final exams which is consisted of two sections: a humanistic one and a science one. At the age of sixteen they leave this school and if they would like to educate further they take the exam to the secondary school.

They chose among high school, technical school or vocational school. If they are going to study at the university, they start a high school or a technical school. If they don't want to study, they choose the vocational. After three or four year of attending to the secondary school, most of students take Matura-exam. Before they start to study, they have to pass the entrance exam.
To study at the university you are required to get the good results of Matura-exam. You will receive the Bachelor's Degree after three years of studing and present your thesis. After next two years of complementary Master-level courses you will get the Master's Degree. Of course the Master thesis is necessary. You can also choose the five-year-study, but in this case you receive only the Master Degree, you don't get the Bachelor's Degree.
complementary Master-level courses - studia magisterskie uzupełniające

==Higher education==

Polish Higher Education System

The institutions of higher education in Poland operate the following types of courses of study:
*professional higher studies (3-4 years): the graduates obtain a professional degree of licentiate or engineer; (BA)
*master’s studies (5-6 years); the graduate obtains, depending on the study course profile, a professional master’s degree [magister] or an equivalent degree; (MA)
*postgraduate master’s studies (2-2.5 years) for graduates of professional higher studies; the graduate obtains a professional master’s degree or an equivalent degree; (PhD)
*doctoral studies (3-4 years): eligible candidates will be graduates of higher studies with a professional master’s degree, working for an academic degree of doctor;
*postgraduate studies (1-2 years) – for graduates of all types of HEI.

Institutions of higher education run full-time courses, extramural courses, evening courses and extern courses. The full-time mode is the basic system of studies.

There are two types of higher education institution:
*university-type HEIs offering studies in the humanities, sciences, medical sciences, economics, pedagogy, the arts, and military studies;
*professional HEIs which educate students in specific professional areas and prepare them for practicing a profession.

Professional Degrees Awarded to HEI Graduates in Poland

In Poland the graduates of institutions of higher education receive following degrees:
*licentiate [licencjat] – a degree obtained on completion of a professional higher education course lasting 3-3.5 years;
*engineer [inżynier] - a degree obtained on completion of a professional higher education course in a field of engineering, agriculture or economics, lasting 3.5 – 4 years;
*master [magister] and equivalent degrees: master of arts, master of engineering, master of engineering – architect, physician, dentist-physician, veterinary physician – awarded on completion of 5-6 years’ continuous master’s studies. Another way? to obtain a master’s degree is to complete a 2-2.5- year postgraduate master’s course for holders of a higher professional education diploma.

To obtain these professional degrees a student must pass performance assessment for each of the subjects and practical training assignments on his or her curriculum, present and defend his or her diploma dissertation and pass the diploma examination.

A HEI graduate receives a diploma of completion of studies in a given field of study, three copies of the diploma and – at his or her request – a copy of the diploma translated into a foreign language.

Graduates who continue education at doctoral courses or pursue research can work for the following academic degrees:

*doctor [doktor] : a degree awarded to one who passed doctoral examinations and proposed and successfully defended a doctoral dissertation [project?]. Those wishing to work for the academic degree of doctor must hold a professional degree of master or an equivalent degree;
*habilitated doctor [doktor habiliowany]: this degree is awarded to candidates who hold a doctor's degree, have important academic or artistic achievements, have proposed a habilitation dissertation and successfully completed the habilitation procedure.

Professor [profesor] is an academic degree awarded by the President of the Republic of Poland.

===Study Course Structure and the Academic Year===

The academic year consists of thirty weeks of study, with about thirty hours of tuition per week, and is structured into two semesters:

*the winter semester (from October 1st to around February 15th of the next calendar year) covers fifteen weeks of study and the winter examination period;
*the summer semester (from around February 16th to September 30th) covers fifteen weeks of study and the summer examination period;
*as a rule, one month of the summer holidays is set aside for integrated student placements.

Each HEI sets its own schedule of academic year. Tuition is conducted in the form of lectures, classes, seminars, laboratory classes and roundtable sessions. The student’s rights and duties with regard to the course of study are laid down in a given HEI’s Study Rules.

Areas of Study

Every higher school publishes on its web site information about the areas of study in which it offers education..

Examinations

Students sit examinations separately in each subject. A performance assessment period covers either one semester or one academic year. To successfully complete a semester (or a year) a student must receive passing (i.e. at least “satisfactory”) marks for all assessments and examinations in the subjects covered by his or her curriculum and to obtain performance assessment credits for all integrated placements on his or her curriculum.

Each HEI identifies its grading scale in its Study Rules. The most common scale comprises the following marks:

*very good (5)
*good plus (4+ or 4.5)
*good (4)
*satisfactory plus (3+ or 3.5)
*satisfactory (3)
*failing (2).

In addition to this grading scale Polish HEIs have been phasing in the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) under which a certain number of credits is allocated to a given subject, independently of marks awarded. Depending on a subject, passing a performance assessment can earn the student from 2 to 12-14 ECTS credits. On passing an examination the student should request that this be put on his or her record together with the credits awarded. To complete successfully a year or a semester a student must collect, respectively, 30 or 60 credits. With the ECTS system in place, more and more Polish students can do part of their studies at foreign higher education institutions. Also, ECTS credits allow foreign students’ periods of study at Polish HEIs to be recognized.

Diploma Projects and Diploma Examinations

To obtain a diploma of completion of higher education a student must:

*pass a performance assessment for all subjects, integrated placements and practical work sessions and pass all examinations covered by the study programme set for a given field of study;
*present, at an appointed date, a diploma project and obtain a passing mark for it;
*pass the diploma examination.

===Present times in education===

As of 2001 there were 1,224,600 students enrolled in the publicly funded universities and colleges. In the private universities and colleges there were 519,100 students. This number has quadrupled over previous enrollment figures. This rise in the rate of enrollment in higher education strongly influences the qualification level of the youngest age group making up the workforce.

Considering that an individual's active life lasts about forty years, more time is needed to raise the level of adult education. In a 1995 census 6.8% of the Polish population have higher education.

The impact of the Bologna Declaration on education in Poland made the diploma supplement mandatory for all diplomas in Poland. Polish universities then pushed for the European Credit Transfer System which was a quality assessment and accreditation program. There had been no official national system of credit transfer and accumulation in Poland previously. Therefore; a credit-point system was introduced for particular specialization.

The promotion of mobility had a goal to reach 10 percent. The obstacle in student mobility is differences in the organization of the academic year in European countries. The number of students coming to Poland is about 10 times lower than other countries and the need for other European languages was evident. Warsaw had 300 students in English and in Technical University of Lodz there were 500 students in English and French.

The European co-operation in quality assurance, Poland is trying to solve the problem of quality and accreditation in a highly professional way. The process of accreditation of study programs at Polish higher education institutions has been significantly accelerated. There are 2 faces: the state-controlled accreditation and the academic community-owned accreditation. For Poland, belonging to the European family is very important they do not want to be disseminated in Poland. For them, lifelong learning and promoting the European higher education area is their primary concern, they also believe that the European higher education area is best promoted by following the Bologna Declaration priorities and does not need any further comments.

==Future of Poland Education system==

By 2010 Poland is hoping that the number of people enrolled in higher education should rise 35-40% and 40-45% in 2020. These increases will raise new challenges for higher education in regards to its accessibility, particularly for the inhabitants of villages and small towns. Ideally Poland wants to decrease the differences in the level of civilization between the country regions and the various social groups. With the spreading effects of the metropolises, the situating of universities and colleges in the medium-sized cities offers a chance to establish education centers of high quality and the possibility of creating innovative processes. The large well-equipped private higher education institutions with increasingly stable staffs are expected to prosper.

== Virtual Initiatives in HE ==
=== The Polish Virtual University (PUW)===
"The [http://www.puw.pl/english/ Polish Virtual University (PUW)] is a joint project of [http://www.umcs.lublin.pl Maria Curie-Sklodowska University in Lublin] and [http://www.wshe.lodz.pl/index.php?j=eng Academy of Humanities and Economics in Lodz].

We offer study programmes and extension courses over the Internet. Our task is to support traditional lectures and trainings as well as promote modern teaching methods."

==References==

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_poland

''Source:''[http://www.puw.pl/english/ Polish Virtual University (PUW)'s English home page]

''Documents of Relevance:''
* [http://www.puw.pl/elearning.html?akcja=elearning PUW web page on e-learning (in Polish)]

File:Poland-map.gif

2008-09-01T12:21:06Z

SandisZuciks:

Latvia

2008-09-01T12:20:16Z

SandisZuciks: /* Latvia */

==Latvia==

[[Image:Latvia-map.gif|right|400px]]
Latvia, officially the Republic of Latvia is a country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. It is bordered to the north by Estonia, to the south by Lithuania, and to the east both by Belarus and the Russian Federation . Across the Baltic Sea to the west lies Sweden. The territory of Latvia covers 64,589 km² and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate.

The Latvians are a Baltic people closely related to the Lithuanians, with the Latvian language sharing many similarities to Lithuanian. Today the Latvians and Lithuanians are the only surviving members of the Baltic peoples and Baltic languages of the Indo-European family. The modern name of Latvia is thought to originate from the ancient Latvian name Latvji, which may have originated from the word Latve which is a name of the river that presumably flowed through what is now eastern Latvia.
Latvia is a democratic parliamentary republic and is divided into 26 districts. The capital and largest city is Riga. Latvia has been a member of the United Nations since 17 September 1991, of the European Union since 1 May 2004 and of NATO since 29 March 2004.

==Latvian education policy==
Every citizen of the Republic of Latvia and every person who has the right to a non-citizen passport issued by the Republic of Latvia, every person who has received a permanent residence permit, as well as citizens of European Union memberstates who have been issued a temporary residence permit, and their children, have equal right to acquire education, regardless of their property or social status, race, nationality, gender, religious or political convictions, state of health, occupation or place of residence.

==Governance of the Education System==

Education system is administered at three levels - national, municipal and institutional. The Parliament (Saeima), the Cabinet of Ministers and the Ministry of Education and Science are the main decision-making bodies at a national level. The Ministry of Education and Science is the education policy-making institution that also issues the licenses for opening comprehensive education institutions and sets educational standards along with the teacher training content and procedures.

==Latvian education system==
[[Image:Izglshema-eng.jpg|right|400px]]

The components of the educational system are pre-school education(pirmsskolas izglitiba), 9-year basic education (pamatizglitiba), upper secondary education (videja izglitiba) and higher education (augstaka izglitiba).

Pre-school education (ISCED 0) is for children aged 5-7 years and is provided by general education establishments or kindergartens as part of compulsory 11 basic education. The objective is to foster general development of children and their readiness to enter the primary stage of basic education.

Basic education (ISCED 1 and 2) comprises primary and lower secondary education and lasts for 9 years. It is compulsory for all children aged 7 and above. The National Basic Education Standard (Valsts pamatizglitibas standarts) determines the curriculum and the content of national examinations. Those who do not complete basic education by 16 should, according to Law, continue studying to complete the programme by the time they are 18. They can also choose VET programmes that allow them to obtain a first or second level professional qualification and to complete the obligatory basic educational programme.

3-year vocational basic education programmes are provided in vocational schools for students without a certificate of basic education (after completion of at least 7 grades of basic education, but they must be at least 15 years old). Upper secondary education (ISCED 3) comprises two types of programme: general secondary (vispareja videja izglitiba) and vocational secondary (profesionala videja izglitiba). In general secondary, there are 4 study fields: general; humanities and social sciences; mathematics, natural science and technical, and vocational (arts, music, business, and sports). The following subjects are obligatory for all programmes: Latvian; first foreign language; second foreign language (in minority population schools - the minority language); mathematics, history; sports; business foundations and computer science. Every programme includes obligatory and optional subjects relevant to the particular field of studies. To receive the Certificate of the secondary education (Atestats par visparejo videjo izglitibu), students should take not less than 5 examinations in compulsory or optional study subjects and no more than 4 tests in compulsory study subjects.

Provision is regulated by the state which determines its level, form and target groups. It also defines the strategic goals and main tasks of each programme; its obligatory content, basic principles and assessment.

Different vocational education programmes are developed and offered for all economic branches. The National Standard of vocational education (Valsts profesionalas izglitibas standarts) and the Occupational Standards (Profesiju standarti) determine the curriculum and content of vocational education programmes.

4-year vocational secondary education programmes are offered to students who have successfully completed compulsory basic education. Graduates receive a diploma of vocational secondary education and a Level 3 vocational qualification.

2-3 year vocational education programmes lead to a Certificate of secondary education and qualification level 3.

Post secondary non-tertiary vocational education (ISCED 4) can be followed after graduating from general secondary schools. They are focused towards mastering purely professional skills and knowledge.

Tertiary education (ISCED 5). While there is a difference between academic and vocational higher education, it is not institutionalised. Universities and other higher education institutions run both academic and vocational programmes.
http://www.aic.lv/refernet/doc/Thematic%20Overview_2007.pdf
Thematic Overview_2007.pdf (application/pdf Object)
Academic higher education programmes (ISCED 5A) lead to a Bachelor’s degree (Bakalaurs) and Master’s degree (Magistrs). The duration of Bachelor’s programmes may be 3 or 4 years. A Master’s degree is awarded after the second stage of academic education and requires at least 5 years of university studies.

The Law of Higher Education Institutions (Augstakas izglitibas likums) and the Law of Vocational Education (Profesionalas izglitibas likums) stipulate a 2-level vocational higher education – the first level (2-3 years) leading to professional qualification Level 4 (ISCED 5B) and second level (ISCED 5B) leading to qualification level 5 (4-6 years). Having completed a programme, students are awarded with a professional qualification or a vocational Bachelor’s degree that can be followed by a further 1-2 years of vocational Master’s studies. The Master’s degree of higher vocational education is awarded if the total duration of studies is at least 5 years.

There can also be short second level vocational higher education study programmes (1-2 years), where the qualification is obtained on the basis of the previously acquired first level vocational higher education or academic Bachelor’s degree. In total the duration of professional qualification Level 5 study programmes is not less than 4 years after secondary education and not less than 2 years after college education.

Bachelor and Master degrees exist both in academic and vocational higher education. Bachelors of both categories have the right to enrol in master’s studies, masters of both categories (including also degrees in medicine and dentistry - 6 and 5 years of study respectively) - in doctoral studies.

Postgraduate education (ISCED level 6). A Master’s degree or the equivalent is required for admission to doctoral studies (Ph.D.) which last 3-4 full-time years. They include advanced studies of the subject in a relevant study programme (or an equivalent amount of independent research while working at a university, research institution, etc.) and a scientific research towards doctoral thesis.
[[Image:Izglshema-eng.jpg|right|400px]]

==Higher education==

Access to higher (tertiary) education (HE). All holders of general secondary education certificates and diplomas on vocational secondary education meet the general admission requirements. However, the universities are free to set specific requirements, e.g. to choose which subjects have to been taken at school level to qualify for admission to a particular programme.

Bakalaurs (bachelor) and maģistrs (master) degrees are awarded both in academic and professional HE. Both types of bachelors are eligible for studies in master programmes and both types of masters (including holders of degrees in medicine and dentistry – 6 and 5 years respectively) – in doctoral programmes.

Academic higher education follows academic education standard and is aimed at preparing graduates for research and providing theoretical background for professional activities.

Bakalaurs degree in a branch of science is awarded after the first cycle of academic studies. Bachelor programmes comprise 120 – 160 credit points (180-240 ECTS) or 4-6 semesters of full-time studies. They include: compulsory part ≥50 CP (75 ECTS), optional part ≥20 CP (30 ECTS), thesis ≥10 CP (15 ECTS) and some subjects of free choice to earn the rest of necessary CP.

Maģistrs degree in a branch of science is awarded after the second cycle of academic studies comprising 80 (120 ECTS) credits, out of those thesis results in ≥20 CP, compulsory part includes theoretical aspects of the field (≥ 30 CP) and their practical application in solving actual problems (≥15 CP).

According to Standards of first and second level professional higher education, its aim is to provide in-depth knowledge in a field, enabling graduates to design and improve systems, products and technologies as well as to prepare graduates for creative, research and teaching activities in this field.

Professional bakalaurs programmes are designed to ensure professional competence, they comprise at least 160 CP (240 ECTS), out of those: general courses (≥15 CP), theoretical courses of the field (≥36 CP), specialization courses (≥60 CP), optional courses (≥6 CP), practical placement (≥26 CP), and state examinations including thesis (≥12 CP).

Professional HE programmes leading to maģistrs degree comprise no less than 40 CP (60 ECTS), out of those: up-to-date achievements in the field – in theory and in practice (≥7 CP), practical placements (≥6 CP), state examinations including thesis (≥20 CP) as well as research training, courses of design, management, psychology etc.

Apart from the programmes leading to bakalaurs and maģistrs degrees, there are other types of professional higher education programmes.

First-level professional HE (college) programmes comprise 80-120 CP (120-180 ECTS) and lead to a CEDUC 4th level professional qualification. These programmes are targeted mainly at labour market. Yet, the graduates of the first-level programmes can continue their studies in second-level professional programmes.

Second-level professional HE programmes lead to a CEDUC 5th level professional qualification. Such programmes can comprise either at least 40 CP (60 ECTS) for holders of bakalaurs degrees or at least 160 CP (240 ECTS) for secondary school leavers. In both cases programmes should include a practical placement of at least 26 CP (39 ECTS) and graduation examinations including thesis (≥10 CP). Graduates of programmes including the 70 CP (105 ECTS) compulsory part of the bakalaurs programme, have access to master studies.

Doctoral studies. From January 1, 2000 onwards a single type of doctoral degree Doktors is being awarded in Latvia.
Maģistrs degree (or the equivalent) is required for admission to doctoral studies. Doktors degree can be achieved at public defence of a doctoral thesis which may be a result of three to four years of full-time doctoral studies at a university or an equivalent amount of independent research while working at a university, research institution etc.

Latvian Council of Science appoints promotion councils and sets the procedures for awarding doctoral degrees.

Credit point system. Latvian credit point is defined as a one-week full-time study workload. An average workload of a full-time study year in most HE programmes is 40 CP. Latvian credit point system is compatible with ECTS. The number of ECTS credits is found by multiplying the number of Latvian credit points by a factor of 1.5.

Grading system. The state standards for higher education set the following ten-point marking system:

Achievement level Grade Meaning Approx. ECTS grade

very high 10 izcili (with distinction) A
very high 9 teicami (excellent) A
high 8 ļoti labi (very good) B
high 7 labi (good) C
medium 6 gandrīz labi (almost good) D
medium 5 viduvēji (satisfactory) E
medium 4 gandrīz viduvēji (almost satisfactory) E/FX
low 3–1 negatīvs vērtējums (unsatisfactory) Fail

Quality assurance. According to Latvian legislation, state-recognized degrees/diplomas may be awarded upon completion of an accredited programme in an accredited HE institution holding a state-approved Satversme (by-law). Quality assessment includes self-evaluation report by the higher education institution and peer evaluation. Evaluation teams consist of at least three experts, with only one from Latvia. In most cases the other two experts are selected from Western Europe or from the Baltic States. Decisions on programme accreditation are taken by the Accreditation Board, while those on institutional accreditation – by the Higher Education Council. The first accreditation cycle was completed in 2001. Recurrent assessments have to take place once every six years.

===State – recognized higher education institutions in Latvia===

Universities:
•University of Latvia;
•Rīga Technical University ;
•Latvia University of Agriculture;
•Daugavpils University;
•Rīga Stradiņa University.

State higher education institutions:
• Latvian Academy of Arts;
• Latvia Academy of Culture;
• Latvian Academy of Music;
• Liepāja Pedagogical Academy,
• Latvian Academy of Sports Education;
• Police Academy of Latvia.
• Banking Institution of Higher Education;
• Latvian Maritime Academy;
• Latvian National Academy of Defence;
• Rēzekne Higher Education Institution;
• Rīga Graduate School of Law;
• Rīga Higher School of Pedagogics and School Management;
• Stockholm School of Economics in Rīga;
• The Ventspils College;
• Vidzeme College of Higher Education.

Private higher education institutions
• Baltic Russian Institute;
• Business Institute RIMPAK Livonia;
• School of Business Administration Turība;
• Higher School of Economics and Culture;
• Higher School of Psychology;
• Higher School of Social Work and Social Pedagogy “Attīstība”;
• Information Systems Institute;
• Institute of Social Technologies;
• International Institute of Practical Psychology;
• Latvian Christian Academy;
• Rīga Aeronautical Institute;
• Rīga International School of Economics and Business Administration;
• Transport and Telecommunication Institute

State colleges:
• RRC College;
• Rīga civil Engineering college
• Jēkabpils Agribusiness college;
• Latvian Culture College;
• Liepāja Maritime College;
• Olaine College of Mechanics and technology;
• Rīga Civil Engineering College;
• Rīga Technical College;
• Rīga Entrepreneurship College;
• Fire Protection and Civic Defence College;
• State Boarder Guards’ College
Private colleges: 3
• Alberta college;
• College of Accounting and Finance;
• Laws College;
• Business and Administration College.

More information
on education system http://www.izm.lv
http://www.aic.lv
www.eurydice.org

==Tuition fee in education system==

The tuition at pre-school, basic and secondary education in a state or municipality founded educational establishments is funded from the national or municipal budget. Private educational institutions may set a tuition fee for providing education. In higher education programmes the state covers tuition fees for a certain number of students’ places, according to the State Procurement in the respective academic year. Each higher education institution may set a tuition fee for the rest of students’ places. All students are entitled to a state credit for their studies in any higher education programme.
Foreigners or non-citizens pay for their education in accordance with the agreement concluded with the respective educational establishment. In cases when foreign citizens study in Latvia under an exchange programme and an equivalent number of Latvian students study abroad, the foreigners' studies in Latvia are financed from the budget resources of the Republic of Latvia allocated to the respective institution of higher education. The tuition fee for the citizens of European Union countries shall be determined and covered according to the same procedure as for the citizens and permanent residents of the Republic of Latvia.

==Strategic guidelines for the development of education for years 2007 - 2013 ==

Totally 57 millions Lats have been provided for the implementation of the strategic guidelines for the development of education of the Ministry of Education and Science. The following tasks are defined in the above strategic guidelines (listed in the sequence of priority):

* To introduce and pay for the pedagogic work of a teacher’s assistant for the purpose of providing support to children (Grades 1 – 6) with learning difficulties – 7.6922 Million Lats;

* To improve the social conditions of students at vocational educational establishments by means of increasing scholarships during years 2007 – 2010 up to 20 Lats per month on average, during years 2011 – 2013 up to 40 Lats per month, the total amount for year 2007 – 4.3611 Million;

* To develop the structure model for the distribution of study programs in compliance to the needs of agriculture and to ensure its implementation in the system of higher education (encouragement of the development of Doctor’s studies – at least 200 new places for Master studies per year, at least 100 new places for Doctor’s studies per year; the number of places for studies in the fields of natural sciences, engineering sciences, medicine and environment sciences increased by at least 300 per year. Provided increase of the scholarships fund by at least 5% per year) – 20 Million Lats.

* To ensure continuous attraction of the state investment for the purpose of arrangement and modernisation of educational establishments – 16.952 Million Lats.

* etc.

==References==

Ministry of Education and Science
http://izm.izm.gov.lv/58.html
(http://izm.izm.gov.lv/nozares-politika/izglitiba.html#izglitibas_sistema)

http://www.aic.lv/portal/en/education_in_latvia.html

http://www.aic.lv/bolona/Latvija/LV_%20Bol_en.pdf

File:Latvia-map.gif

2008-09-01T12:16:28Z

SandisZuciks:

Latvia

2008-09-01T12:05:13Z

SandisZuciks: /* Latvian education system */

==Latvia==

Latvia, officially the Republic of Latvia is a country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. It is bordered to the north by Estonia, to the south by Lithuania, and to the east both by Belarus and the Russian Federation . Across the Baltic Sea to the west lies Sweden. The territory of Latvia covers 64,589 km² and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate.

The Latvians are a Baltic people closely related to the Lithuanians, with the Latvian language sharing many similarities to Lithuanian. Today the Latvians and Lithuanians are the only surviving members of the Baltic peoples and Baltic languages of the Indo-European family. The modern name of Latvia is thought to originate from the ancient Latvian name Latvji, which may have originated from the word Latve which is a name of the river that presumably flowed through what is now eastern Latvia.
Latvia is a democratic parliamentary republic and is divided into 26 districts. The capital and largest city is Riga. Latvia has been a member of the United Nations since 17 September 1991, of the European Union since 1 May 2004 and of NATO since 29 March 2004.

==Latvian education policy==
Every citizen of the Republic of Latvia and every person who has the right to a non-citizen passport issued by the Republic of Latvia, every person who has received a permanent residence permit, as well as citizens of European Union memberstates who have been issued a temporary residence permit, and their children, have equal right to acquire education, regardless of their property or social status, race, nationality, gender, religious or political convictions, state of health, occupation or place of residence.

==Governance of the Education System==

Education system is administered at three levels - national, municipal and institutional. The Parliament (Saeima), the Cabinet of Ministers and the Ministry of Education and Science are the main decision-making bodies at a national level. The Ministry of Education and Science is the education policy-making institution that also issues the licenses for opening comprehensive education institutions and sets educational standards along with the teacher training content and procedures.

==Latvian education system==
[[Image:Izglshema-eng.jpg|right|400px]]

The components of the educational system are pre-school education(pirmsskolas izglitiba), 9-year basic education (pamatizglitiba), upper secondary education (videja izglitiba) and higher education (augstaka izglitiba).

Pre-school education (ISCED 0) is for children aged 5-7 years and is provided by general education establishments or kindergartens as part of compulsory 11 basic education. The objective is to foster general development of children and their readiness to enter the primary stage of basic education.

Basic education (ISCED 1 and 2) comprises primary and lower secondary education and lasts for 9 years. It is compulsory for all children aged 7 and above. The National Basic Education Standard (Valsts pamatizglitibas standarts) determines the curriculum and the content of national examinations. Those who do not complete basic education by 16 should, according to Law, continue studying to complete the programme by the time they are 18. They can also choose VET programmes that allow them to obtain a first or second level professional qualification and to complete the obligatory basic educational programme.

3-year vocational basic education programmes are provided in vocational schools for students without a certificate of basic education (after completion of at least 7 grades of basic education, but they must be at least 15 years old). Upper secondary education (ISCED 3) comprises two types of programme: general secondary (vispareja videja izglitiba) and vocational secondary (profesionala videja izglitiba). In general secondary, there are 4 study fields: general; humanities and social sciences; mathematics, natural science and technical, and vocational (arts, music, business, and sports). The following subjects are obligatory for all programmes: Latvian; first foreign language; second foreign language (in minority population schools - the minority language); mathematics, history; sports; business foundations and computer science. Every programme includes obligatory and optional subjects relevant to the particular field of studies. To receive the Certificate of the secondary education (Atestats par visparejo videjo izglitibu), students should take not less than 5 examinations in compulsory or optional study subjects and no more than 4 tests in compulsory study subjects.

Provision is regulated by the state which determines its level, form and target groups. It also defines the strategic goals and main tasks of each programme; its obligatory content, basic principles and assessment.

Different vocational education programmes are developed and offered for all economic branches. The National Standard of vocational education (Valsts profesionalas izglitibas standarts) and the Occupational Standards (Profesiju standarti) determine the curriculum and content of vocational education programmes.

4-year vocational secondary education programmes are offered to students who have successfully completed compulsory basic education. Graduates receive a diploma of vocational secondary education and a Level 3 vocational qualification.

2-3 year vocational education programmes lead to a Certificate of secondary education and qualification level 3.

Post secondary non-tertiary vocational education (ISCED 4) can be followed after graduating from general secondary schools. They are focused towards mastering purely professional skills and knowledge.

Tertiary education (ISCED 5). While there is a difference between academic and vocational higher education, it is not institutionalised. Universities and other higher education institutions run both academic and vocational programmes.
http://www.aic.lv/refernet/doc/Thematic%20Overview_2007.pdf
Thematic Overview_2007.pdf (application/pdf Object)
Academic higher education programmes (ISCED 5A) lead to a Bachelor’s degree (Bakalaurs) and Master’s degree (Magistrs). The duration of Bachelor’s programmes may be 3 or 4 years. A Master’s degree is awarded after the second stage of academic education and requires at least 5 years of university studies.

The Law of Higher Education Institutions (Augstakas izglitibas likums) and the Law of Vocational Education (Profesionalas izglitibas likums) stipulate a 2-level vocational higher education – the first level (2-3 years) leading to professional qualification Level 4 (ISCED 5B) and second level (ISCED 5B) leading to qualification level 5 (4-6 years). Having completed a programme, students are awarded with a professional qualification or a vocational Bachelor’s degree that can be followed by a further 1-2 years of vocational Master’s studies. The Master’s degree of higher vocational education is awarded if the total duration of studies is at least 5 years.

There can also be short second level vocational higher education study programmes (1-2 years), where the qualification is obtained on the basis of the previously acquired first level vocational higher education or academic Bachelor’s degree. In total the duration of professional qualification Level 5 study programmes is not less than 4 years after secondary education and not less than 2 years after college education.

Bachelor and Master degrees exist both in academic and vocational higher education. Bachelors of both categories have the right to enrol in master’s studies, masters of both categories (including also degrees in medicine and dentistry - 6 and 5 years of study respectively) - in doctoral studies.

Postgraduate education (ISCED level 6). A Master’s degree or the equivalent is required for admission to doctoral studies (Ph.D.) which last 3-4 full-time years. They include advanced studies of the subject in a relevant study programme (or an equivalent amount of independent research while working at a university, research institution, etc.) and a scientific research towards doctoral thesis.
[[Image:Izglshema-eng.jpg|right|400px]]

==Higher education==

Access to higher (tertiary) education (HE). All holders of general secondary education certificates and diplomas on vocational secondary education meet the general admission requirements. However, the universities are free to set specific requirements, e.g. to choose which subjects have to been taken at school level to qualify for admission to a particular programme.

Bakalaurs (bachelor) and maģistrs (master) degrees are awarded both in academic and professional HE. Both types of bachelors are eligible for studies in master programmes and both types of masters (including holders of degrees in medicine and dentistry – 6 and 5 years respectively) – in doctoral programmes.

Academic higher education follows academic education standard and is aimed at preparing graduates for research and providing theoretical background for professional activities.

Bakalaurs degree in a branch of science is awarded after the first cycle of academic studies. Bachelor programmes comprise 120 – 160 credit points (180-240 ECTS) or 4-6 semesters of full-time studies. They include: compulsory part ≥50 CP (75 ECTS), optional part ≥20 CP (30 ECTS), thesis ≥10 CP (15 ECTS) and some subjects of free choice to earn the rest of necessary CP.

Maģistrs degree in a branch of science is awarded after the second cycle of academic studies comprising 80 (120 ECTS) credits, out of those thesis results in ≥20 CP, compulsory part includes theoretical aspects of the field (≥ 30 CP) and their practical application in solving actual problems (≥15 CP).

According to Standards of first and second level professional higher education, its aim is to provide in-depth knowledge in a field, enabling graduates to design and improve systems, products and technologies as well as to prepare graduates for creative, research and teaching activities in this field.

Professional bakalaurs programmes are designed to ensure professional competence, they comprise at least 160 CP (240 ECTS), out of those: general courses (≥15 CP), theoretical courses of the field (≥36 CP), specialization courses (≥60 CP), optional courses (≥6 CP), practical placement (≥26 CP), and state examinations including thesis (≥12 CP).

Professional HE programmes leading to maģistrs degree comprise no less than 40 CP (60 ECTS), out of those: up-to-date achievements in the field – in theory and in practice (≥7 CP), practical placements (≥6 CP), state examinations including thesis (≥20 CP) as well as research training, courses of design, management, psychology etc.

Apart from the programmes leading to bakalaurs and maģistrs degrees, there are other types of professional higher education programmes.

First-level professional HE (college) programmes comprise 80-120 CP (120-180 ECTS) and lead to a CEDUC 4th level professional qualification. These programmes are targeted mainly at labour market. Yet, the graduates of the first-level programmes can continue their studies in second-level professional programmes.

Second-level professional HE programmes lead to a CEDUC 5th level professional qualification. Such programmes can comprise either at least 40 CP (60 ECTS) for holders of bakalaurs degrees or at least 160 CP (240 ECTS) for secondary school leavers. In both cases programmes should include a practical placement of at least 26 CP (39 ECTS) and graduation examinations including thesis (≥10 CP). Graduates of programmes including the 70 CP (105 ECTS) compulsory part of the bakalaurs programme, have access to master studies.

Doctoral studies. From January 1, 2000 onwards a single type of doctoral degree Doktors is being awarded in Latvia.
Maģistrs degree (or the equivalent) is required for admission to doctoral studies. Doktors degree can be achieved at public defence of a doctoral thesis which may be a result of three to four years of full-time doctoral studies at a university or an equivalent amount of independent research while working at a university, research institution etc.

Latvian Council of Science appoints promotion councils and sets the procedures for awarding doctoral degrees.

Credit point system. Latvian credit point is defined as a one-week full-time study workload. An average workload of a full-time study year in most HE programmes is 40 CP. Latvian credit point system is compatible with ECTS. The number of ECTS credits is found by multiplying the number of Latvian credit points by a factor of 1.5.

Grading system. The state standards for higher education set the following ten-point marking system:

Achievement level Grade Meaning Approx. ECTS grade

very high 10 izcili (with distinction) A
very high 9 teicami (excellent) A
high 8 ļoti labi (very good) B
high 7 labi (good) C
medium 6 gandrīz labi (almost good) D
medium 5 viduvēji (satisfactory) E
medium 4 gandrīz viduvēji (almost satisfactory) E/FX
low 3–1 negatīvs vērtējums (unsatisfactory) Fail

Quality assurance. According to Latvian legislation, state-recognized degrees/diplomas may be awarded upon completion of an accredited programme in an accredited HE institution holding a state-approved Satversme (by-law). Quality assessment includes self-evaluation report by the higher education institution and peer evaluation. Evaluation teams consist of at least three experts, with only one from Latvia. In most cases the other two experts are selected from Western Europe or from the Baltic States. Decisions on programme accreditation are taken by the Accreditation Board, while those on institutional accreditation – by the Higher Education Council. The first accreditation cycle was completed in 2001. Recurrent assessments have to take place once every six years.

===State – recognized higher education institutions in Latvia===

Universities:
•University of Latvia;
•Rīga Technical University ;
•Latvia University of Agriculture;
•Daugavpils University;
•Rīga Stradiņa University.

State higher education institutions:
• Latvian Academy of Arts;
• Latvia Academy of Culture;
• Latvian Academy of Music;
• Liepāja Pedagogical Academy,
• Latvian Academy of Sports Education;
• Police Academy of Latvia.
• Banking Institution of Higher Education;
• Latvian Maritime Academy;
• Latvian National Academy of Defence;
• Rēzekne Higher Education Institution;
• Rīga Graduate School of Law;
• Rīga Higher School of Pedagogics and School Management;
• Stockholm School of Economics in Rīga;
• The Ventspils College;
• Vidzeme College of Higher Education.

Private higher education institutions
• Baltic Russian Institute;
• Business Institute RIMPAK Livonia;
• School of Business Administration Turība;
• Higher School of Economics and Culture;
• Higher School of Psychology;
• Higher School of Social Work and Social Pedagogy “Attīstība”;
• Information Systems Institute;
• Institute of Social Technologies;
• International Institute of Practical Psychology;
• Latvian Christian Academy;
• Rīga Aeronautical Institute;
• Rīga International School of Economics and Business Administration;
• Transport and Telecommunication Institute

State colleges:
• RRC College;
• Rīga civil Engineering college
• Jēkabpils Agribusiness college;
• Latvian Culture College;
• Liepāja Maritime College;
• Olaine College of Mechanics and technology;
• Rīga Civil Engineering College;
• Rīga Technical College;
• Rīga Entrepreneurship College;
• Fire Protection and Civic Defence College;
• State Boarder Guards’ College
Private colleges: 3
• Alberta college;
• College of Accounting and Finance;
• Laws College;
• Business and Administration College.

More information
on education system http://www.izm.lv
http://www.aic.lv
www.eurydice.org

==Tuition fee in education system==

The tuition at pre-school, basic and secondary education in a state or municipality founded educational establishments is funded from the national or municipal budget. Private educational institutions may set a tuition fee for providing education. In higher education programmes the state covers tuition fees for a certain number of students’ places, according to the State Procurement in the respective academic year. Each higher education institution may set a tuition fee for the rest of students’ places. All students are entitled to a state credit for their studies in any higher education programme.
Foreigners or non-citizens pay for their education in accordance with the agreement concluded with the respective educational establishment. In cases when foreign citizens study in Latvia under an exchange programme and an equivalent number of Latvian students study abroad, the foreigners' studies in Latvia are financed from the budget resources of the Republic of Latvia allocated to the respective institution of higher education. The tuition fee for the citizens of European Union countries shall be determined and covered according to the same procedure as for the citizens and permanent residents of the Republic of Latvia.

==Strategic guidelines for the development of education for years 2007 - 2013 ==

Totally 57 millions Lats have been provided for the implementation of the strategic guidelines for the development of education of the Ministry of Education and Science. The following tasks are defined in the above strategic guidelines (listed in the sequence of priority):

* To introduce and pay for the pedagogic work of a teacher’s assistant for the purpose of providing support to children (Grades 1 – 6) with learning difficulties – 7.6922 Million Lats;

* To improve the social conditions of students at vocational educational establishments by means of increasing scholarships during years 2007 – 2010 up to 20 Lats per month on average, during years 2011 – 2013 up to 40 Lats per month, the total amount for year 2007 – 4.3611 Million;

* To develop the structure model for the distribution of study programs in compliance to the needs of agriculture and to ensure its implementation in the system of higher education (encouragement of the development of Doctor’s studies – at least 200 new places for Master studies per year, at least 100 new places for Doctor’s studies per year; the number of places for studies in the fields of natural sciences, engineering sciences, medicine and environment sciences increased by at least 300 per year. Provided increase of the scholarships fund by at least 5% per year) – 20 Million Lats.

* To ensure continuous attraction of the state investment for the purpose of arrangement and modernisation of educational establishments – 16.952 Million Lats.

* etc.

==References==

Ministry of Education and Science
http://izm.izm.gov.lv/58.html
(http://izm.izm.gov.lv/nozares-politika/izglitiba.html#izglitibas_sistema)

http://www.aic.lv/portal/en/education_in_latvia.html

http://www.aic.lv/bolona/Latvija/LV_%20Bol_en.pdf

Latvia

2008-09-01T12:04:13Z

SandisZuciks: /* Latvian education system */

==Latvia==

Latvia, officially the Republic of Latvia is a country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. It is bordered to the north by Estonia, to the south by Lithuania, and to the east both by Belarus and the Russian Federation . Across the Baltic Sea to the west lies Sweden. The territory of Latvia covers 64,589 km² and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate.

The Latvians are a Baltic people closely related to the Lithuanians, with the Latvian language sharing many similarities to Lithuanian. Today the Latvians and Lithuanians are the only surviving members of the Baltic peoples and Baltic languages of the Indo-European family. The modern name of Latvia is thought to originate from the ancient Latvian name Latvji, which may have originated from the word Latve which is a name of the river that presumably flowed through what is now eastern Latvia.
Latvia is a democratic parliamentary republic and is divided into 26 districts. The capital and largest city is Riga. Latvia has been a member of the United Nations since 17 September 1991, of the European Union since 1 May 2004 and of NATO since 29 March 2004.

==Latvian education policy==
Every citizen of the Republic of Latvia and every person who has the right to a non-citizen passport issued by the Republic of Latvia, every person who has received a permanent residence permit, as well as citizens of European Union memberstates who have been issued a temporary residence permit, and their children, have equal right to acquire education, regardless of their property or social status, race, nationality, gender, religious or political convictions, state of health, occupation or place of residence.

==Governance of the Education System==

Education system is administered at three levels - national, municipal and institutional. The Parliament (Saeima), the Cabinet of Ministers and the Ministry of Education and Science are the main decision-making bodies at a national level. The Ministry of Education and Science is the education policy-making institution that also issues the licenses for opening comprehensive education institutions and sets educational standards along with the teacher training content and procedures.

==Latvian education system==

The components of the educational system are pre-school education(pirmsskolas izglitiba), 9-year basic education (pamatizglitiba), upper secondary education (videja izglitiba) and higher education (augstaka izglitiba).

Pre-school education (ISCED 0) is for children aged 5-7 years and is provided by general education establishments or kindergartens as part of compulsory 11 basic education. The objective is to foster general development of children and their readiness to enter the primary stage of basic education.

Basic education (ISCED 1 and 2) comprises primary and lower secondary education and lasts for 9 years. It is compulsory for all children aged 7 and above. The National Basic Education Standard (Valsts pamatizglitibas standarts) determines the curriculum and the content of national examinations. Those who do not complete basic education by 16 should, according to Law, continue studying to complete the programme by the time they are 18. They can also choose VET programmes that allow them to obtain a first or second level professional qualification and to complete the obligatory basic educational programme.

3-year vocational basic education programmes are provided in vocational schools for students without a certificate of basic education (after completion of at least 7 grades of basic education, but they must be at least 15 years old). Upper secondary education (ISCED 3) comprises two types of programme: general secondary (vispareja videja izglitiba) and vocational secondary (profesionala videja izglitiba). In general secondary, there are 4 study fields: general; humanities and social sciences; mathematics, natural science and technical, and vocational (arts, music, business, and sports). The following subjects are obligatory for all programmes: Latvian; first foreign language; second foreign language (in minority population schools - the minority language); mathematics, history; sports; business foundations and computer science. Every programme includes obligatory and optional subjects relevant to the particular field of studies. To receive the Certificate of the secondary education (Atestats par visparejo videjo izglitibu), students should take not less than 5 examinations in compulsory or optional study subjects and no more than 4 tests in compulsory study subjects.

Provision is regulated by the state which determines its level, form and target groups. It also defines the strategic goals and main tasks of each programme; its obligatory content, basic principles and assessment.

Different vocational education programmes are developed and offered for all economic branches. The National Standard of vocational education (Valsts profesionalas izglitibas standarts) and the Occupational Standards (Profesiju standarti) determine the curriculum and content of vocational education programmes.

4-year vocational secondary education programmes are offered to students who have successfully completed compulsory basic education. Graduates receive a diploma of vocational secondary education and a Level 3 vocational qualification.

2-3 year vocational education programmes lead to a Certificate of secondary education and qualification level 3.

Post secondary non-tertiary vocational education (ISCED 4) can be followed after graduating from general secondary schools. They are focused towards mastering purely professional skills and knowledge.

Tertiary education (ISCED 5). While there is a difference between academic and vocational higher education, it is not institutionalised. Universities and other higher education institutions run both academic and vocational programmes.
http://www.aic.lv/refernet/doc/Thematic%20Overview_2007.pdf
Thematic Overview_2007.pdf (application/pdf Object)
Academic higher education programmes (ISCED 5A) lead to a Bachelor’s degree (Bakalaurs) and Master’s degree (Magistrs). The duration of Bachelor’s programmes may be 3 or 4 years. A Master’s degree is awarded after the second stage of academic education and requires at least 5 years of university studies.

The Law of Higher Education Institutions (Augstakas izglitibas likums) and the Law of Vocational Education (Profesionalas izglitibas likums) stipulate a 2-level vocational higher education – the first level (2-3 years) leading to professional qualification Level 4 (ISCED 5B) and second level (ISCED 5B) leading to qualification level 5 (4-6 years). Having completed a programme, students are awarded with a professional qualification or a vocational Bachelor’s degree that can be followed by a further 1-2 years of vocational Master’s studies. The Master’s degree of higher vocational education is awarded if the total duration of studies is at least 5 years.

There can also be short second level vocational higher education study programmes (1-2 years), where the qualification is obtained on the basis of the previously acquired first level vocational higher education or academic Bachelor’s degree. In total the duration of professional qualification Level 5 study programmes is not less than 4 years after secondary education and not less than 2 years after college education.

Bachelor and Master degrees exist both in academic and vocational higher education. Bachelors of both categories have the right to enrol in master’s studies, masters of both categories (including also degrees in medicine and dentistry - 6 and 5 years of study respectively) - in doctoral studies.

Postgraduate education (ISCED level 6). A Master’s degree or the equivalent is required for admission to doctoral studies (Ph.D.) which last 3-4 full-time years. They include advanced studies of the subject in a relevant study programme (or an equivalent amount of independent research while working at a university, research institution, etc.) and a scientific research towards doctoral thesis.
[[Image:Izglshema-eng.jpg|right|400px]]

==Higher education==

Access to higher (tertiary) education (HE). All holders of general secondary education certificates and diplomas on vocational secondary education meet the general admission requirements. However, the universities are free to set specific requirements, e.g. to choose which subjects have to been taken at school level to qualify for admission to a particular programme.

Bakalaurs (bachelor) and maģistrs (master) degrees are awarded both in academic and professional HE. Both types of bachelors are eligible for studies in master programmes and both types of masters (including holders of degrees in medicine and dentistry – 6 and 5 years respectively) – in doctoral programmes.

Academic higher education follows academic education standard and is aimed at preparing graduates for research and providing theoretical background for professional activities.

Bakalaurs degree in a branch of science is awarded after the first cycle of academic studies. Bachelor programmes comprise 120 – 160 credit points (180-240 ECTS) or 4-6 semesters of full-time studies. They include: compulsory part ≥50 CP (75 ECTS), optional part ≥20 CP (30 ECTS), thesis ≥10 CP (15 ECTS) and some subjects of free choice to earn the rest of necessary CP.

Maģistrs degree in a branch of science is awarded after the second cycle of academic studies comprising 80 (120 ECTS) credits, out of those thesis results in ≥20 CP, compulsory part includes theoretical aspects of the field (≥ 30 CP) and their practical application in solving actual problems (≥15 CP).

According to Standards of first and second level professional higher education, its aim is to provide in-depth knowledge in a field, enabling graduates to design and improve systems, products and technologies as well as to prepare graduates for creative, research and teaching activities in this field.

Professional bakalaurs programmes are designed to ensure professional competence, they comprise at least 160 CP (240 ECTS), out of those: general courses (≥15 CP), theoretical courses of the field (≥36 CP), specialization courses (≥60 CP), optional courses (≥6 CP), practical placement (≥26 CP), and state examinations including thesis (≥12 CP).

Professional HE programmes leading to maģistrs degree comprise no less than 40 CP (60 ECTS), out of those: up-to-date achievements in the field – in theory and in practice (≥7 CP), practical placements (≥6 CP), state examinations including thesis (≥20 CP) as well as research training, courses of design, management, psychology etc.

Apart from the programmes leading to bakalaurs and maģistrs degrees, there are other types of professional higher education programmes.

First-level professional HE (college) programmes comprise 80-120 CP (120-180 ECTS) and lead to a CEDUC 4th level professional qualification. These programmes are targeted mainly at labour market. Yet, the graduates of the first-level programmes can continue their studies in second-level professional programmes.

Second-level professional HE programmes lead to a CEDUC 5th level professional qualification. Such programmes can comprise either at least 40 CP (60 ECTS) for holders of bakalaurs degrees or at least 160 CP (240 ECTS) for secondary school leavers. In both cases programmes should include a practical placement of at least 26 CP (39 ECTS) and graduation examinations including thesis (≥10 CP). Graduates of programmes including the 70 CP (105 ECTS) compulsory part of the bakalaurs programme, have access to master studies.

Doctoral studies. From January 1, 2000 onwards a single type of doctoral degree Doktors is being awarded in Latvia.
Maģistrs degree (or the equivalent) is required for admission to doctoral studies. Doktors degree can be achieved at public defence of a doctoral thesis which may be a result of three to four years of full-time doctoral studies at a university or an equivalent amount of independent research while working at a university, research institution etc.

Latvian Council of Science appoints promotion councils and sets the procedures for awarding doctoral degrees.

Credit point system. Latvian credit point is defined as a one-week full-time study workload. An average workload of a full-time study year in most HE programmes is 40 CP. Latvian credit point system is compatible with ECTS. The number of ECTS credits is found by multiplying the number of Latvian credit points by a factor of 1.5.

Grading system. The state standards for higher education set the following ten-point marking system:

Achievement level Grade Meaning Approx. ECTS grade

very high 10 izcili (with distinction) A
very high 9 teicami (excellent) A
high 8 ļoti labi (very good) B
high 7 labi (good) C
medium 6 gandrīz labi (almost good) D
medium 5 viduvēji (satisfactory) E
medium 4 gandrīz viduvēji (almost satisfactory) E/FX
low 3–1 negatīvs vērtējums (unsatisfactory) Fail

Quality assurance. According to Latvian legislation, state-recognized degrees/diplomas may be awarded upon completion of an accredited programme in an accredited HE institution holding a state-approved Satversme (by-law). Quality assessment includes self-evaluation report by the higher education institution and peer evaluation. Evaluation teams consist of at least three experts, with only one from Latvia. In most cases the other two experts are selected from Western Europe or from the Baltic States. Decisions on programme accreditation are taken by the Accreditation Board, while those on institutional accreditation – by the Higher Education Council. The first accreditation cycle was completed in 2001. Recurrent assessments have to take place once every six years.

===State – recognized higher education institutions in Latvia===

Universities:
•University of Latvia;
•Rīga Technical University ;
•Latvia University of Agriculture;
•Daugavpils University;
•Rīga Stradiņa University.

State higher education institutions:
• Latvian Academy of Arts;
• Latvia Academy of Culture;
• Latvian Academy of Music;
• Liepāja Pedagogical Academy,
• Latvian Academy of Sports Education;
• Police Academy of Latvia.
• Banking Institution of Higher Education;
• Latvian Maritime Academy;
• Latvian National Academy of Defence;
• Rēzekne Higher Education Institution;
• Rīga Graduate School of Law;
• Rīga Higher School of Pedagogics and School Management;
• Stockholm School of Economics in Rīga;
• The Ventspils College;
• Vidzeme College of Higher Education.

Private higher education institutions
• Baltic Russian Institute;
• Business Institute RIMPAK Livonia;
• School of Business Administration Turība;
• Higher School of Economics and Culture;
• Higher School of Psychology;
• Higher School of Social Work and Social Pedagogy “Attīstība”;
• Information Systems Institute;
• Institute of Social Technologies;
• International Institute of Practical Psychology;
• Latvian Christian Academy;
• Rīga Aeronautical Institute;
• Rīga International School of Economics and Business Administration;
• Transport and Telecommunication Institute

State colleges:
• RRC College;
• Rīga civil Engineering college
• Jēkabpils Agribusiness college;
• Latvian Culture College;
• Liepāja Maritime College;
• Olaine College of Mechanics and technology;
• Rīga Civil Engineering College;
• Rīga Technical College;
• Rīga Entrepreneurship College;
• Fire Protection and Civic Defence College;
• State Boarder Guards’ College
Private colleges: 3
• Alberta college;
• College of Accounting and Finance;
• Laws College;
• Business and Administration College.

More information
on education system http://www.izm.lv
http://www.aic.lv
www.eurydice.org

==Tuition fee in education system==

The tuition at pre-school, basic and secondary education in a state or municipality founded educational establishments is funded from the national or municipal budget. Private educational institutions may set a tuition fee for providing education. In higher education programmes the state covers tuition fees for a certain number of students’ places, according to the State Procurement in the respective academic year. Each higher education institution may set a tuition fee for the rest of students’ places. All students are entitled to a state credit for their studies in any higher education programme.
Foreigners or non-citizens pay for their education in accordance with the agreement concluded with the respective educational establishment. In cases when foreign citizens study in Latvia under an exchange programme and an equivalent number of Latvian students study abroad, the foreigners' studies in Latvia are financed from the budget resources of the Republic of Latvia allocated to the respective institution of higher education. The tuition fee for the citizens of European Union countries shall be determined and covered according to the same procedure as for the citizens and permanent residents of the Republic of Latvia.

==Strategic guidelines for the development of education for years 2007 - 2013 ==

Totally 57 millions Lats have been provided for the implementation of the strategic guidelines for the development of education of the Ministry of Education and Science. The following tasks are defined in the above strategic guidelines (listed in the sequence of priority):

* To introduce and pay for the pedagogic work of a teacher’s assistant for the purpose of providing support to children (Grades 1 – 6) with learning difficulties – 7.6922 Million Lats;

* To improve the social conditions of students at vocational educational establishments by means of increasing scholarships during years 2007 – 2010 up to 20 Lats per month on average, during years 2011 – 2013 up to 40 Lats per month, the total amount for year 2007 – 4.3611 Million;

* To develop the structure model for the distribution of study programs in compliance to the needs of agriculture and to ensure its implementation in the system of higher education (encouragement of the development of Doctor’s studies – at least 200 new places for Master studies per year, at least 100 new places for Doctor’s studies per year; the number of places for studies in the fields of natural sciences, engineering sciences, medicine and environment sciences increased by at least 300 per year. Provided increase of the scholarships fund by at least 5% per year) – 20 Million Lats.

* To ensure continuous attraction of the state investment for the purpose of arrangement and modernisation of educational establishments – 16.952 Million Lats.

* etc.

==References==

Ministry of Education and Science
http://izm.izm.gov.lv/58.html
(http://izm.izm.gov.lv/nozares-politika/izglitiba.html#izglitibas_sistema)

http://www.aic.lv/portal/en/education_in_latvia.html

http://www.aic.lv/bolona/Latvija/LV_%20Bol_en.pdf

Latvia

2008-09-01T12:02:40Z

SandisZuciks: /* Latvian education system */

==Latvia==

Latvia, officially the Republic of Latvia is a country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. It is bordered to the north by Estonia, to the south by Lithuania, and to the east both by Belarus and the Russian Federation . Across the Baltic Sea to the west lies Sweden. The territory of Latvia covers 64,589 km² and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate.

The Latvians are a Baltic people closely related to the Lithuanians, with the Latvian language sharing many similarities to Lithuanian. Today the Latvians and Lithuanians are the only surviving members of the Baltic peoples and Baltic languages of the Indo-European family. The modern name of Latvia is thought to originate from the ancient Latvian name Latvji, which may have originated from the word Latve which is a name of the river that presumably flowed through what is now eastern Latvia.
Latvia is a democratic parliamentary republic and is divided into 26 districts. The capital and largest city is Riga. Latvia has been a member of the United Nations since 17 September 1991, of the European Union since 1 May 2004 and of NATO since 29 March 2004.

==Latvian education policy==
Every citizen of the Republic of Latvia and every person who has the right to a non-citizen passport issued by the Republic of Latvia, every person who has received a permanent residence permit, as well as citizens of European Union memberstates who have been issued a temporary residence permit, and their children, have equal right to acquire education, regardless of their property or social status, race, nationality, gender, religious or political convictions, state of health, occupation or place of residence.

==Governance of the Education System==

Education system is administered at three levels - national, municipal and institutional. The Parliament (Saeima), the Cabinet of Ministers and the Ministry of Education and Science are the main decision-making bodies at a national level. The Ministry of Education and Science is the education policy-making institution that also issues the licenses for opening comprehensive education institutions and sets educational standards along with the teacher training content and procedures.

==Latvian education system==

The components of the educational system are pre-school education(pirmsskolas izglitiba), 9-year basic education (pamatizglitiba), upper secondary education (videja izglitiba) and higher education (augstaka izglitiba).

Pre-school education (ISCED 0) is for children aged 5-7 years and is provided by general education establishments or kindergartens as part of compulsory 11 basic education. The objective is to foster general development of children and their readiness to enter the primary stage of basic education.

Basic education (ISCED 1 and 2) comprises primary and lower secondary education and lasts for 9 years. It is compulsory for all children aged 7 and above. The National Basic Education Standard (Valsts pamatizglitibas standarts) determines the curriculum and the content of national examinations. Those who do not complete basic education by 16 should, according to Law, continue studying to complete the programme by the time they are 18. They can also choose VET programmes that allow them to obtain a first or second level professional qualification and to complete the obligatory basic educational programme.

3-year vocational basic education programmes are provided in vocational schools for students without a certificate of basic education (after completion of at least 7 grades of basic education, but they must be at least 15 years old). Upper secondary education (ISCED 3) comprises two types of programme: general secondary (vispareja videja izglitiba) and vocational secondary (profesionala videja izglitiba). In general secondary, there are 4 study fields: general; humanities and social sciences; mathematics, natural science and technical, and vocational (arts, music, business, and sports). The following subjects are obligatory for all programmes: Latvian; first foreign language; second foreign language (in minority population schools - the minority language); mathematics, history; sports; business foundations and computer science. Every programme includes obligatory and optional subjects relevant to the particular field of studies. To receive the Certificate of the secondary education (Atestats par visparejo videjo izglitibu), students should take not less than 5 examinations in compulsory or optional study subjects and no more than 4 tests in compulsory study subjects.

Provision is regulated by the state which determines its level, form and target groups. It also defines the strategic goals and main tasks of each programme; its obligatory content, basic principles and assessment.

Different vocational education programmes are developed and offered for all economic branches. The National Standard of vocational education (Valsts profesionalas izglitibas standarts) and the Occupational Standards (Profesiju standarti) determine the curriculum and content of vocational education programmes.

4-year vocational secondary education programmes are offered to students who have successfully completed compulsory basic education. Graduates receive a diploma of vocational secondary education and a Level 3 vocational qualification.

2-3 year vocational education programmes lead to a Certificate of secondary education and qualification level 3.

Post secondary non-tertiary vocational education (ISCED 4) can be followed after graduating from general secondary schools. They are focused towards mastering purely professional skills and knowledge.

Tertiary education (ISCED 5). While there is a difference between academic and vocational higher education, it is not institutionalised. Universities and other higher education institutions run both academic and vocational programmes.
http://www.aic.lv/refernet/doc/Thematic%20Overview_2007.pdf
Thematic Overview_2007.pdf (application/pdf Object)
Academic higher education programmes (ISCED 5A) lead to a Bachelor’s degree (Bakalaurs) and Master’s degree (Magistrs). The duration of Bachelor’s programmes may be 3 or 4 years. A Master’s degree is awarded after the second stage of academic education and requires at least 5 years of university studies.

The Law of Higher Education Institutions (Augstakas izglitibas likums) and the Law of Vocational Education (Profesionalas izglitibas likums) stipulate a 2-level vocational higher education – the first level (2-3 years) leading to professional qualification Level 4 (ISCED 5B) and second level (ISCED 5B) leading to qualification level 5 (4-6 years). Having completed a programme, students are awarded with a professional qualification or a vocational Bachelor’s degree that can be followed by a further 1-2 years of vocational Master’s studies. The Master’s degree of higher vocational education is awarded if the total duration of studies is at least 5 years.

There can also be short second level vocational higher education study programmes (1-2 years), where the qualification is obtained on the basis of the previously acquired first level vocational higher education or academic Bachelor’s degree. In total the duration of professional qualification Level 5 study programmes is not less than 4 years after secondary education and not less than 2 years after college education.

Bachelor and Master degrees exist both in academic and vocational higher education. Bachelors of both categories have the right to enrol in master’s studies, masters of both categories (including also degrees in medicine and dentistry - 6 and 5 years of study respectively) - in doctoral studies.

Postgraduate education (ISCED level 6). A Master’s degree or the equivalent is required for admission to doctoral studies (Ph.D.) which last 3-4 full-time years. They include advanced studies of the subject in a relevant study programme (or an equivalent amount of independent research while working at a university, research institution, etc.) and a scientific research towards doctoral thesis.
[[Image:Izglshema-eng.jpg|300px]]

==Higher education==

Access to higher (tertiary) education (HE). All holders of general secondary education certificates and diplomas on vocational secondary education meet the general admission requirements. However, the universities are free to set specific requirements, e.g. to choose which subjects have to been taken at school level to qualify for admission to a particular programme.

Bakalaurs (bachelor) and maģistrs (master) degrees are awarded both in academic and professional HE. Both types of bachelors are eligible for studies in master programmes and both types of masters (including holders of degrees in medicine and dentistry – 6 and 5 years respectively) – in doctoral programmes.

Academic higher education follows academic education standard and is aimed at preparing graduates for research and providing theoretical background for professional activities.

Bakalaurs degree in a branch of science is awarded after the first cycle of academic studies. Bachelor programmes comprise 120 – 160 credit points (180-240 ECTS) or 4-6 semesters of full-time studies. They include: compulsory part ≥50 CP (75 ECTS), optional part ≥20 CP (30 ECTS), thesis ≥10 CP (15 ECTS) and some subjects of free choice to earn the rest of necessary CP.

Maģistrs degree in a branch of science is awarded after the second cycle of academic studies comprising 80 (120 ECTS) credits, out of those thesis results in ≥20 CP, compulsory part includes theoretical aspects of the field (≥ 30 CP) and their practical application in solving actual problems (≥15 CP).

According to Standards of first and second level professional higher education, its aim is to provide in-depth knowledge in a field, enabling graduates to design and improve systems, products and technologies as well as to prepare graduates for creative, research and teaching activities in this field.

Professional bakalaurs programmes are designed to ensure professional competence, they comprise at least 160 CP (240 ECTS), out of those: general courses (≥15 CP), theoretical courses of the field (≥36 CP), specialization courses (≥60 CP), optional courses (≥6 CP), practical placement (≥26 CP), and state examinations including thesis (≥12 CP).

Professional HE programmes leading to maģistrs degree comprise no less than 40 CP (60 ECTS), out of those: up-to-date achievements in the field – in theory and in practice (≥7 CP), practical placements (≥6 CP), state examinations including thesis (≥20 CP) as well as research training, courses of design, management, psychology etc.

Apart from the programmes leading to bakalaurs and maģistrs degrees, there are other types of professional higher education programmes.

First-level professional HE (college) programmes comprise 80-120 CP (120-180 ECTS) and lead to a CEDUC 4th level professional qualification. These programmes are targeted mainly at labour market. Yet, the graduates of the first-level programmes can continue their studies in second-level professional programmes.

Second-level professional HE programmes lead to a CEDUC 5th level professional qualification. Such programmes can comprise either at least 40 CP (60 ECTS) for holders of bakalaurs degrees or at least 160 CP (240 ECTS) for secondary school leavers. In both cases programmes should include a practical placement of at least 26 CP (39 ECTS) and graduation examinations including thesis (≥10 CP). Graduates of programmes including the 70 CP (105 ECTS) compulsory part of the bakalaurs programme, have access to master studies.

Doctoral studies. From January 1, 2000 onwards a single type of doctoral degree Doktors is being awarded in Latvia.
Maģistrs degree (or the equivalent) is required for admission to doctoral studies. Doktors degree can be achieved at public defence of a doctoral thesis which may be a result of three to four years of full-time doctoral studies at a university or an equivalent amount of independent research while working at a university, research institution etc.

Latvian Council of Science appoints promotion councils and sets the procedures for awarding doctoral degrees.

Credit point system. Latvian credit point is defined as a one-week full-time study workload. An average workload of a full-time study year in most HE programmes is 40 CP. Latvian credit point system is compatible with ECTS. The number of ECTS credits is found by multiplying the number of Latvian credit points by a factor of 1.5.

Grading system. The state standards for higher education set the following ten-point marking system:

Achievement level Grade Meaning Approx. ECTS grade

very high 10 izcili (with distinction) A
very high 9 teicami (excellent) A
high 8 ļoti labi (very good) B
high 7 labi (good) C
medium 6 gandrīz labi (almost good) D
medium 5 viduvēji (satisfactory) E
medium 4 gandrīz viduvēji (almost satisfactory) E/FX
low 3–1 negatīvs vērtējums (unsatisfactory) Fail

Quality assurance. According to Latvian legislation, state-recognized degrees/diplomas may be awarded upon completion of an accredited programme in an accredited HE institution holding a state-approved Satversme (by-law). Quality assessment includes self-evaluation report by the higher education institution and peer evaluation. Evaluation teams consist of at least three experts, with only one from Latvia. In most cases the other two experts are selected from Western Europe or from the Baltic States. Decisions on programme accreditation are taken by the Accreditation Board, while those on institutional accreditation – by the Higher Education Council. The first accreditation cycle was completed in 2001. Recurrent assessments have to take place once every six years.

===State – recognized higher education institutions in Latvia===

Universities:
•University of Latvia;
•Rīga Technical University ;
•Latvia University of Agriculture;
•Daugavpils University;
•Rīga Stradiņa University.

State higher education institutions:
• Latvian Academy of Arts;
• Latvia Academy of Culture;
• Latvian Academy of Music;
• Liepāja Pedagogical Academy,
• Latvian Academy of Sports Education;
• Police Academy of Latvia.
• Banking Institution of Higher Education;
• Latvian Maritime Academy;
• Latvian National Academy of Defence;
• Rēzekne Higher Education Institution;
• Rīga Graduate School of Law;
• Rīga Higher School of Pedagogics and School Management;
• Stockholm School of Economics in Rīga;
• The Ventspils College;
• Vidzeme College of Higher Education.

Private higher education institutions
• Baltic Russian Institute;
• Business Institute RIMPAK Livonia;
• School of Business Administration Turība;
• Higher School of Economics and Culture;
• Higher School of Psychology;
• Higher School of Social Work and Social Pedagogy “Attīstība”;
• Information Systems Institute;
• Institute of Social Technologies;
• International Institute of Practical Psychology;
• Latvian Christian Academy;
• Rīga Aeronautical Institute;
• Rīga International School of Economics and Business Administration;
• Transport and Telecommunication Institute

State colleges:
• RRC College;
• Rīga civil Engineering college
• Jēkabpils Agribusiness college;
• Latvian Culture College;
• Liepāja Maritime College;
• Olaine College of Mechanics and technology;
• Rīga Civil Engineering College;
• Rīga Technical College;
• Rīga Entrepreneurship College;
• Fire Protection and Civic Defence College;
• State Boarder Guards’ College
Private colleges: 3
• Alberta college;
• College of Accounting and Finance;
• Laws College;
• Business and Administration College.

More information
on education system http://www.izm.lv
http://www.aic.lv
www.eurydice.org

==Tuition fee in education system==

The tuition at pre-school, basic and secondary education in a state or municipality founded educational establishments is funded from the national or municipal budget. Private educational institutions may set a tuition fee for providing education. In higher education programmes the state covers tuition fees for a certain number of students’ places, according to the State Procurement in the respective academic year. Each higher education institution may set a tuition fee for the rest of students’ places. All students are entitled to a state credit for their studies in any higher education programme.
Foreigners or non-citizens pay for their education in accordance with the agreement concluded with the respective educational establishment. In cases when foreign citizens study in Latvia under an exchange programme and an equivalent number of Latvian students study abroad, the foreigners' studies in Latvia are financed from the budget resources of the Republic of Latvia allocated to the respective institution of higher education. The tuition fee for the citizens of European Union countries shall be determined and covered according to the same procedure as for the citizens and permanent residents of the Republic of Latvia.

==Strategic guidelines for the development of education for years 2007 - 2013 ==

Totally 57 millions Lats have been provided for the implementation of the strategic guidelines for the development of education of the Ministry of Education and Science. The following tasks are defined in the above strategic guidelines (listed in the sequence of priority):

* To introduce and pay for the pedagogic work of a teacher’s assistant for the purpose of providing support to children (Grades 1 – 6) with learning difficulties – 7.6922 Million Lats;

* To improve the social conditions of students at vocational educational establishments by means of increasing scholarships during years 2007 – 2010 up to 20 Lats per month on average, during years 2011 – 2013 up to 40 Lats per month, the total amount for year 2007 – 4.3611 Million;

* To develop the structure model for the distribution of study programs in compliance to the needs of agriculture and to ensure its implementation in the system of higher education (encouragement of the development of Doctor’s studies – at least 200 new places for Master studies per year, at least 100 new places for Doctor’s studies per year; the number of places for studies in the fields of natural sciences, engineering sciences, medicine and environment sciences increased by at least 300 per year. Provided increase of the scholarships fund by at least 5% per year) – 20 Million Lats.

* To ensure continuous attraction of the state investment for the purpose of arrangement and modernisation of educational establishments – 16.952 Million Lats.

* etc.

==References==

Ministry of Education and Science
http://izm.izm.gov.lv/58.html
(http://izm.izm.gov.lv/nozares-politika/izglitiba.html#izglitibas_sistema)

http://www.aic.lv/portal/en/education_in_latvia.html

http://www.aic.lv/bolona/Latvija/LV_%20Bol_en.pdf

Latvia

2008-09-01T11:59:22Z

SandisZuciks: /* Latvian education system */

==Latvia==

Latvia, officially the Republic of Latvia is a country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. It is bordered to the north by Estonia, to the south by Lithuania, and to the east both by Belarus and the Russian Federation . Across the Baltic Sea to the west lies Sweden. The territory of Latvia covers 64,589 km² and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate.

The Latvians are a Baltic people closely related to the Lithuanians, with the Latvian language sharing many similarities to Lithuanian. Today the Latvians and Lithuanians are the only surviving members of the Baltic peoples and Baltic languages of the Indo-European family. The modern name of Latvia is thought to originate from the ancient Latvian name Latvji, which may have originated from the word Latve which is a name of the river that presumably flowed through what is now eastern Latvia.
Latvia is a democratic parliamentary republic and is divided into 26 districts. The capital and largest city is Riga. Latvia has been a member of the United Nations since 17 September 1991, of the European Union since 1 May 2004 and of NATO since 29 March 2004.

==Latvian education policy==
Every citizen of the Republic of Latvia and every person who has the right to a non-citizen passport issued by the Republic of Latvia, every person who has received a permanent residence permit, as well as citizens of European Union memberstates who have been issued a temporary residence permit, and their children, have equal right to acquire education, regardless of their property or social status, race, nationality, gender, religious or political convictions, state of health, occupation or place of residence.

==Governance of the Education System==

Education system is administered at three levels - national, municipal and institutional. The Parliament (Saeima), the Cabinet of Ministers and the Ministry of Education and Science are the main decision-making bodies at a national level. The Ministry of Education and Science is the education policy-making institution that also issues the licenses for opening comprehensive education institutions and sets educational standards along with the teacher training content and procedures.

==Latvian education system==

The components of the educational system are pre-school education(pirmsskolas izglitiba), 9-year basic education (pamatizglitiba), upper secondary education (videja izglitiba) and higher education (augstaka izglitiba).

Pre-school education (ISCED 0) is for children aged 5-7 years and is provided by general education establishments or kindergartens as part of compulsory 11 basic education. The objective is to foster general development of children and their readiness to enter the primary stage of basic education.

Basic education (ISCED 1 and 2) comprises primary and lower secondary education and lasts for 9 years. It is compulsory for all children aged 7 and above. The National Basic Education Standard (Valsts pamatizglitibas standarts) determines the curriculum and the content of national examinations. Those who do not complete basic education by 16 should, according to Law, continue studying to complete the programme by the time they are 18. They can also choose VET programmes that allow them to obtain a first or second level professional qualification and to complete the obligatory basic educational programme.

3-year vocational basic education programmes are provided in vocational schools for students without a certificate of basic education (after completion of at least 7 grades of basic education, but they must be at least 15 years old). Upper secondary education (ISCED 3) comprises two types of programme: general secondary (vispareja videja izglitiba) and vocational secondary (profesionala videja izglitiba). In general secondary, there are 4 study fields: general; humanities and social sciences; mathematics, natural science and technical, and vocational (arts, music, business, and sports). The following subjects are obligatory for all programmes: Latvian; first foreign language; second foreign language (in minority population schools - the minority language); mathematics, history; sports; business foundations and computer science. Every programme includes obligatory and optional subjects relevant to the particular field of studies. To receive the Certificate of the secondary education (Atestats par visparejo videjo izglitibu), students should take not less than 5 examinations in compulsory or optional study subjects and no more than 4 tests in compulsory study subjects.

Provision is regulated by the state which determines its level, form and target groups. It also defines the strategic goals and main tasks of each programme; its obligatory content, basic principles and assessment.

Different vocational education programmes are developed and offered for all economic branches. The National Standard of vocational education (Valsts profesionalas izglitibas standarts) and the Occupational Standards (Profesiju standarti) determine the curriculum and content of vocational education programmes.

4-year vocational secondary education programmes are offered to students who have successfully completed compulsory basic education. Graduates receive a diploma of vocational secondary education and a Level 3 vocational qualification.

2-3 year vocational education programmes lead to a Certificate of secondary education and qualification level 3.

Post secondary non-tertiary vocational education (ISCED 4) can be followed after graduating from general secondary schools. They are focused towards mastering purely professional skills and knowledge.

Tertiary education (ISCED 5). While there is a difference between academic and vocational higher education, it is not institutionalised. Universities and other higher education institutions run both academic and vocational programmes.
http://www.aic.lv/refernet/doc/Thematic%20Overview_2007.pdf
Thematic Overview_2007.pdf (application/pdf Object)
Academic higher education programmes (ISCED 5A) lead to a Bachelor’s degree (Bakalaurs) and Master’s degree (Magistrs). The duration of Bachelor’s programmes may be 3 or 4 years. A Master’s degree is awarded after the second stage of academic education and requires at least 5 years of university studies.

The Law of Higher Education Institutions (Augstakas izglitibas likums) and the Law of Vocational Education (Profesionalas izglitibas likums) stipulate a 2-level vocational higher education – the first level (2-3 years) leading to professional qualification Level 4 (ISCED 5B) and second level (ISCED 5B) leading to qualification level 5 (4-6 years). Having completed a programme, students are awarded with a professional qualification or a vocational Bachelor’s degree that can be followed by a further 1-2 years of vocational Master’s studies. The Master’s degree of higher vocational education is awarded if the total duration of studies is at least 5 years.

There can also be short second level vocational higher education study programmes (1-2 years), where the qualification is obtained on the basis of the previously acquired first level vocational higher education or academic Bachelor’s degree. In total the duration of professional qualification Level 5 study programmes is not less than 4 years after secondary education and not less than 2 years after college education.

Bachelor and Master degrees exist both in academic and vocational higher education. Bachelors of both categories have the right to enrol in master’s studies, masters of both categories (including also degrees in medicine and dentistry - 6 and 5 years of study respectively) - in doctoral studies.

Postgraduate education (ISCED level 6). A Master’s degree or the equivalent is required for admission to doctoral studies (Ph.D.) which last 3-4 full-time years. They include advanced studies of the subject in a relevant study programme (or an equivalent amount of independent research while working at a university, research institution, etc.) and a scientific research towards doctoral thesis.
[[Image:Izglshema-eng.jpg|right]]

==Higher education==

Access to higher (tertiary) education (HE). All holders of general secondary education certificates and diplomas on vocational secondary education meet the general admission requirements. However, the universities are free to set specific requirements, e.g. to choose which subjects have to been taken at school level to qualify for admission to a particular programme.

Bakalaurs (bachelor) and maģistrs (master) degrees are awarded both in academic and professional HE. Both types of bachelors are eligible for studies in master programmes and both types of masters (including holders of degrees in medicine and dentistry – 6 and 5 years respectively) – in doctoral programmes.

Academic higher education follows academic education standard and is aimed at preparing graduates for research and providing theoretical background for professional activities.

Bakalaurs degree in a branch of science is awarded after the first cycle of academic studies. Bachelor programmes comprise 120 – 160 credit points (180-240 ECTS) or 4-6 semesters of full-time studies. They include: compulsory part ≥50 CP (75 ECTS), optional part ≥20 CP (30 ECTS), thesis ≥10 CP (15 ECTS) and some subjects of free choice to earn the rest of necessary CP.

Maģistrs degree in a branch of science is awarded after the second cycle of academic studies comprising 80 (120 ECTS) credits, out of those thesis results in ≥20 CP, compulsory part includes theoretical aspects of the field (≥ 30 CP) and their practical application in solving actual problems (≥15 CP).

According to Standards of first and second level professional higher education, its aim is to provide in-depth knowledge in a field, enabling graduates to design and improve systems, products and technologies as well as to prepare graduates for creative, research and teaching activities in this field.

Professional bakalaurs programmes are designed to ensure professional competence, they comprise at least 160 CP (240 ECTS), out of those: general courses (≥15 CP), theoretical courses of the field (≥36 CP), specialization courses (≥60 CP), optional courses (≥6 CP), practical placement (≥26 CP), and state examinations including thesis (≥12 CP).

Professional HE programmes leading to maģistrs degree comprise no less than 40 CP (60 ECTS), out of those: up-to-date achievements in the field – in theory and in practice (≥7 CP), practical placements (≥6 CP), state examinations including thesis (≥20 CP) as well as research training, courses of design, management, psychology etc.

Apart from the programmes leading to bakalaurs and maģistrs degrees, there are other types of professional higher education programmes.

First-level professional HE (college) programmes comprise 80-120 CP (120-180 ECTS) and lead to a CEDUC 4th level professional qualification. These programmes are targeted mainly at labour market. Yet, the graduates of the first-level programmes can continue their studies in second-level professional programmes.

Second-level professional HE programmes lead to a CEDUC 5th level professional qualification. Such programmes can comprise either at least 40 CP (60 ECTS) for holders of bakalaurs degrees or at least 160 CP (240 ECTS) for secondary school leavers. In both cases programmes should include a practical placement of at least 26 CP (39 ECTS) and graduation examinations including thesis (≥10 CP). Graduates of programmes including the 70 CP (105 ECTS) compulsory part of the bakalaurs programme, have access to master studies.

Doctoral studies. From January 1, 2000 onwards a single type of doctoral degree Doktors is being awarded in Latvia.
Maģistrs degree (or the equivalent) is required for admission to doctoral studies. Doktors degree can be achieved at public defence of a doctoral thesis which may be a result of three to four years of full-time doctoral studies at a university or an equivalent amount of independent research while working at a university, research institution etc.

Latvian Council of Science appoints promotion councils and sets the procedures for awarding doctoral degrees.

Credit point system. Latvian credit point is defined as a one-week full-time study workload. An average workload of a full-time study year in most HE programmes is 40 CP. Latvian credit point system is compatible with ECTS. The number of ECTS credits is found by multiplying the number of Latvian credit points by a factor of 1.5.

Grading system. The state standards for higher education set the following ten-point marking system:

Achievement level Grade Meaning Approx. ECTS grade

very high 10 izcili (with distinction) A
very high 9 teicami (excellent) A
high 8 ļoti labi (very good) B
high 7 labi (good) C
medium 6 gandrīz labi (almost good) D
medium 5 viduvēji (satisfactory) E
medium 4 gandrīz viduvēji (almost satisfactory) E/FX
low 3–1 negatīvs vērtējums (unsatisfactory) Fail

Quality assurance. According to Latvian legislation, state-recognized degrees/diplomas may be awarded upon completion of an accredited programme in an accredited HE institution holding a state-approved Satversme (by-law). Quality assessment includes self-evaluation report by the higher education institution and peer evaluation. Evaluation teams consist of at least three experts, with only one from Latvia. In most cases the other two experts are selected from Western Europe or from the Baltic States. Decisions on programme accreditation are taken by the Accreditation Board, while those on institutional accreditation – by the Higher Education Council. The first accreditation cycle was completed in 2001. Recurrent assessments have to take place once every six years.

===State – recognized higher education institutions in Latvia===

Universities:
•University of Latvia;
•Rīga Technical University ;
•Latvia University of Agriculture;
•Daugavpils University;
•Rīga Stradiņa University.

State higher education institutions:
• Latvian Academy of Arts;
• Latvia Academy of Culture;
• Latvian Academy of Music;
• Liepāja Pedagogical Academy,
• Latvian Academy of Sports Education;
• Police Academy of Latvia.
• Banking Institution of Higher Education;
• Latvian Maritime Academy;
• Latvian National Academy of Defence;
• Rēzekne Higher Education Institution;
• Rīga Graduate School of Law;
• Rīga Higher School of Pedagogics and School Management;
• Stockholm School of Economics in Rīga;
• The Ventspils College;
• Vidzeme College of Higher Education.

Private higher education institutions
• Baltic Russian Institute;
• Business Institute RIMPAK Livonia;
• School of Business Administration Turība;
• Higher School of Economics and Culture;
• Higher School of Psychology;
• Higher School of Social Work and Social Pedagogy “Attīstība”;
• Information Systems Institute;
• Institute of Social Technologies;
• International Institute of Practical Psychology;
• Latvian Christian Academy;
• Rīga Aeronautical Institute;
• Rīga International School of Economics and Business Administration;
• Transport and Telecommunication Institute

State colleges:
• RRC College;
• Rīga civil Engineering college
• Jēkabpils Agribusiness college;
• Latvian Culture College;
• Liepāja Maritime College;
• Olaine College of Mechanics and technology;
• Rīga Civil Engineering College;
• Rīga Technical College;
• Rīga Entrepreneurship College;
• Fire Protection and Civic Defence College;
• State Boarder Guards’ College
Private colleges: 3
• Alberta college;
• College of Accounting and Finance;
• Laws College;
• Business and Administration College.

More information
on education system http://www.izm.lv
http://www.aic.lv
www.eurydice.org

==Tuition fee in education system==

The tuition at pre-school, basic and secondary education in a state or municipality founded educational establishments is funded from the national or municipal budget. Private educational institutions may set a tuition fee for providing education. In higher education programmes the state covers tuition fees for a certain number of students’ places, according to the State Procurement in the respective academic year. Each higher education institution may set a tuition fee for the rest of students’ places. All students are entitled to a state credit for their studies in any higher education programme.
Foreigners or non-citizens pay for their education in accordance with the agreement concluded with the respective educational establishment. In cases when foreign citizens study in Latvia under an exchange programme and an equivalent number of Latvian students study abroad, the foreigners' studies in Latvia are financed from the budget resources of the Republic of Latvia allocated to the respective institution of higher education. The tuition fee for the citizens of European Union countries shall be determined and covered according to the same procedure as for the citizens and permanent residents of the Republic of Latvia.

==Strategic guidelines for the development of education for years 2007 - 2013 ==

Totally 57 millions Lats have been provided for the implementation of the strategic guidelines for the development of education of the Ministry of Education and Science. The following tasks are defined in the above strategic guidelines (listed in the sequence of priority):

* To introduce and pay for the pedagogic work of a teacher’s assistant for the purpose of providing support to children (Grades 1 – 6) with learning difficulties – 7.6922 Million Lats;

* To improve the social conditions of students at vocational educational establishments by means of increasing scholarships during years 2007 – 2010 up to 20 Lats per month on average, during years 2011 – 2013 up to 40 Lats per month, the total amount for year 2007 – 4.3611 Million;

* To develop the structure model for the distribution of study programs in compliance to the needs of agriculture and to ensure its implementation in the system of higher education (encouragement of the development of Doctor’s studies – at least 200 new places for Master studies per year, at least 100 new places for Doctor’s studies per year; the number of places for studies in the fields of natural sciences, engineering sciences, medicine and environment sciences increased by at least 300 per year. Provided increase of the scholarships fund by at least 5% per year) – 20 Million Lats.

* To ensure continuous attraction of the state investment for the purpose of arrangement and modernisation of educational establishments – 16.952 Million Lats.

* etc.

==References==

Ministry of Education and Science
http://izm.izm.gov.lv/58.html
(http://izm.izm.gov.lv/nozares-politika/izglitiba.html#izglitibas_sistema)

http://www.aic.lv/portal/en/education_in_latvia.html

http://www.aic.lv/bolona/Latvija/LV_%20Bol_en.pdf

Latvia

2008-09-01T11:57:50Z

SandisZuciks: /* Latvian education system */

==Latvia==

Latvia, officially the Republic of Latvia is a country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. It is bordered to the north by Estonia, to the south by Lithuania, and to the east both by Belarus and the Russian Federation . Across the Baltic Sea to the west lies Sweden. The territory of Latvia covers 64,589 km² and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate.

The Latvians are a Baltic people closely related to the Lithuanians, with the Latvian language sharing many similarities to Lithuanian. Today the Latvians and Lithuanians are the only surviving members of the Baltic peoples and Baltic languages of the Indo-European family. The modern name of Latvia is thought to originate from the ancient Latvian name Latvji, which may have originated from the word Latve which is a name of the river that presumably flowed through what is now eastern Latvia.
Latvia is a democratic parliamentary republic and is divided into 26 districts. The capital and largest city is Riga. Latvia has been a member of the United Nations since 17 September 1991, of the European Union since 1 May 2004 and of NATO since 29 March 2004.

==Latvian education policy==
Every citizen of the Republic of Latvia and every person who has the right to a non-citizen passport issued by the Republic of Latvia, every person who has received a permanent residence permit, as well as citizens of European Union memberstates who have been issued a temporary residence permit, and their children, have equal right to acquire education, regardless of their property or social status, race, nationality, gender, religious or political convictions, state of health, occupation or place of residence.

==Governance of the Education System==

Education system is administered at three levels - national, municipal and institutional. The Parliament (Saeima), the Cabinet of Ministers and the Ministry of Education and Science are the main decision-making bodies at a national level. The Ministry of Education and Science is the education policy-making institution that also issues the licenses for opening comprehensive education institutions and sets educational standards along with the teacher training content and procedures.

==Latvian education system==

The components of the educational system are pre-school education(pirmsskolas izglitiba), 9-year basic education (pamatizglitiba), upper secondary education (videja izglitiba) and higher education (augstaka izglitiba).

Pre-school education (ISCED 0) is for children aged 5-7 years and is provided by general education establishments or kindergartens as part of compulsory 11 basic education. The objective is to foster general development of children and their readiness to enter the primary stage of basic education.

Basic education (ISCED 1 and 2) comprises primary and lower secondary education and lasts for 9 years. It is compulsory for all children aged 7 and above. The National Basic Education Standard (Valsts pamatizglitibas standarts) determines the curriculum and the content of national examinations. Those who do not complete basic education by 16 should, according to Law, continue studying to complete the programme by the time they are 18. They can also choose VET programmes that allow them to obtain a first or second level professional qualification and to complete the obligatory basic educational programme.

3-year vocational basic education programmes are provided in vocational schools for students without a certificate of basic education (after completion of at least 7 grades of basic education, but they must be at least 15 years old). Upper secondary education (ISCED 3) comprises two types of programme: general secondary (vispareja videja izglitiba) and vocational secondary (profesionala videja izglitiba). In general secondary, there are 4 study fields: general; humanities and social sciences; mathematics, natural science and technical, and vocational (arts, music, business, and sports). The following subjects are obligatory for all programmes: Latvian; first foreign language; second foreign language (in minority population schools - the minority language); mathematics, history; sports; business foundations and computer science. Every programme includes obligatory and optional subjects relevant to the particular field of studies. To receive the Certificate of the secondary education (Atestats par visparejo videjo izglitibu), students should take not less than 5 examinations in compulsory or optional study subjects and no more than 4 tests in compulsory study subjects.

Provision is regulated by the state which determines its level, form and target groups. It also defines the strategic goals and main tasks of each programme; its obligatory content, basic principles and assessment.

Different vocational education programmes are developed and offered for all economic branches. The National Standard of vocational education (Valsts profesionalas izglitibas standarts) and the Occupational Standards (Profesiju standarti) determine the curriculum and content of vocational education programmes.

4-year vocational secondary education programmes are offered to students who have successfully completed compulsory basic education. Graduates receive a diploma of vocational secondary education and a Level 3 vocational qualification.

2-3 year vocational education programmes lead to a Certificate of secondary education and qualification level 3.

Post secondary non-tertiary vocational education (ISCED 4) can be followed after graduating from general secondary schools. They are focused towards mastering purely professional skills and knowledge.

Tertiary education (ISCED 5). While there is a difference between academic and vocational higher education, it is not institutionalised. Universities and other higher education institutions run both academic and vocational programmes.
http://www.aic.lv/refernet/doc/Thematic%20Overview_2007.pdf
Thematic Overview_2007.pdf (application/pdf Object)
Academic higher education programmes (ISCED 5A) lead to a Bachelor’s degree (Bakalaurs) and Master’s degree (Magistrs). The duration of Bachelor’s programmes may be 3 or 4 years. A Master’s degree is awarded after the second stage of academic education and requires at least 5 years of university studies.

The Law of Higher Education Institutions (Augstakas izglitibas likums) and the Law of Vocational Education (Profesionalas izglitibas likums) stipulate a 2-level vocational higher education – the first level (2-3 years) leading to professional qualification Level 4 (ISCED 5B) and second level (ISCED 5B) leading to qualification level 5 (4-6 years). Having completed a programme, students are awarded with a professional qualification or a vocational Bachelor’s degree that can be followed by a further 1-2 years of vocational Master’s studies. The Master’s degree of higher vocational education is awarded if the total duration of studies is at least 5 years.

There can also be short second level vocational higher education study programmes (1-2 years), where the qualification is obtained on the basis of the previously acquired first level vocational higher education or academic Bachelor’s degree. In total the duration of professional qualification Level 5 study programmes is not less than 4 years after secondary education and not less than 2 years after college education.

Bachelor and Master degrees exist both in academic and vocational higher education. Bachelors of both categories have the right to enrol in master’s studies, masters of both categories (including also degrees in medicine and dentistry - 6 and 5 years of study respectively) - in doctoral studies.

Postgraduate education (ISCED level 6). A Master’s degree or the equivalent is required for admission to doctoral studies (Ph.D.) which last 3-4 full-time years. They include advanced studies of the subject in a relevant study programme (or an equivalent amount of independent research while working at a university, research institution, etc.) and a scientific research towards doctoral thesis.
[[Image:Izglshema-eng.jpg]]

==Higher education==

Access to higher (tertiary) education (HE). All holders of general secondary education certificates and diplomas on vocational secondary education meet the general admission requirements. However, the universities are free to set specific requirements, e.g. to choose which subjects have to been taken at school level to qualify for admission to a particular programme.

Bakalaurs (bachelor) and maģistrs (master) degrees are awarded both in academic and professional HE. Both types of bachelors are eligible for studies in master programmes and both types of masters (including holders of degrees in medicine and dentistry – 6 and 5 years respectively) – in doctoral programmes.

Academic higher education follows academic education standard and is aimed at preparing graduates for research and providing theoretical background for professional activities.

Bakalaurs degree in a branch of science is awarded after the first cycle of academic studies. Bachelor programmes comprise 120 – 160 credit points (180-240 ECTS) or 4-6 semesters of full-time studies. They include: compulsory part ≥50 CP (75 ECTS), optional part ≥20 CP (30 ECTS), thesis ≥10 CP (15 ECTS) and some subjects of free choice to earn the rest of necessary CP.

Maģistrs degree in a branch of science is awarded after the second cycle of academic studies comprising 80 (120 ECTS) credits, out of those thesis results in ≥20 CP, compulsory part includes theoretical aspects of the field (≥ 30 CP) and their practical application in solving actual problems (≥15 CP).

According to Standards of first and second level professional higher education, its aim is to provide in-depth knowledge in a field, enabling graduates to design and improve systems, products and technologies as well as to prepare graduates for creative, research and teaching activities in this field.

Professional bakalaurs programmes are designed to ensure professional competence, they comprise at least 160 CP (240 ECTS), out of those: general courses (≥15 CP), theoretical courses of the field (≥36 CP), specialization courses (≥60 CP), optional courses (≥6 CP), practical placement (≥26 CP), and state examinations including thesis (≥12 CP).

Professional HE programmes leading to maģistrs degree comprise no less than 40 CP (60 ECTS), out of those: up-to-date achievements in the field – in theory and in practice (≥7 CP), practical placements (≥6 CP), state examinations including thesis (≥20 CP) as well as research training, courses of design, management, psychology etc.

Apart from the programmes leading to bakalaurs and maģistrs degrees, there are other types of professional higher education programmes.

First-level professional HE (college) programmes comprise 80-120 CP (120-180 ECTS) and lead to a CEDUC 4th level professional qualification. These programmes are targeted mainly at labour market. Yet, the graduates of the first-level programmes can continue their studies in second-level professional programmes.

Second-level professional HE programmes lead to a CEDUC 5th level professional qualification. Such programmes can comprise either at least 40 CP (60 ECTS) for holders of bakalaurs degrees or at least 160 CP (240 ECTS) for secondary school leavers. In both cases programmes should include a practical placement of at least 26 CP (39 ECTS) and graduation examinations including thesis (≥10 CP). Graduates of programmes including the 70 CP (105 ECTS) compulsory part of the bakalaurs programme, have access to master studies.

Doctoral studies. From January 1, 2000 onwards a single type of doctoral degree Doktors is being awarded in Latvia.
Maģistrs degree (or the equivalent) is required for admission to doctoral studies. Doktors degree can be achieved at public defence of a doctoral thesis which may be a result of three to four years of full-time doctoral studies at a university or an equivalent amount of independent research while working at a university, research institution etc.

Latvian Council of Science appoints promotion councils and sets the procedures for awarding doctoral degrees.

Credit point system. Latvian credit point is defined as a one-week full-time study workload. An average workload of a full-time study year in most HE programmes is 40 CP. Latvian credit point system is compatible with ECTS. The number of ECTS credits is found by multiplying the number of Latvian credit points by a factor of 1.5.

Grading system. The state standards for higher education set the following ten-point marking system:

Achievement level Grade Meaning Approx. ECTS grade

very high 10 izcili (with distinction) A
very high 9 teicami (excellent) A
high 8 ļoti labi (very good) B
high 7 labi (good) C
medium 6 gandrīz labi (almost good) D
medium 5 viduvēji (satisfactory) E
medium 4 gandrīz viduvēji (almost satisfactory) E/FX
low 3–1 negatīvs vērtējums (unsatisfactory) Fail

Quality assurance. According to Latvian legislation, state-recognized degrees/diplomas may be awarded upon completion of an accredited programme in an accredited HE institution holding a state-approved Satversme (by-law). Quality assessment includes self-evaluation report by the higher education institution and peer evaluation. Evaluation teams consist of at least three experts, with only one from Latvia. In most cases the other two experts are selected from Western Europe or from the Baltic States. Decisions on programme accreditation are taken by the Accreditation Board, while those on institutional accreditation – by the Higher Education Council. The first accreditation cycle was completed in 2001. Recurrent assessments have to take place once every six years.

===State – recognized higher education institutions in Latvia===

Universities:
•University of Latvia;
•Rīga Technical University ;
•Latvia University of Agriculture;
•Daugavpils University;
•Rīga Stradiņa University.

State higher education institutions:
• Latvian Academy of Arts;
• Latvia Academy of Culture;
• Latvian Academy of Music;
• Liepāja Pedagogical Academy,
• Latvian Academy of Sports Education;
• Police Academy of Latvia.
• Banking Institution of Higher Education;
• Latvian Maritime Academy;
• Latvian National Academy of Defence;
• Rēzekne Higher Education Institution;
• Rīga Graduate School of Law;
• Rīga Higher School of Pedagogics and School Management;
• Stockholm School of Economics in Rīga;
• The Ventspils College;
• Vidzeme College of Higher Education.

Private higher education institutions
• Baltic Russian Institute;
• Business Institute RIMPAK Livonia;
• School of Business Administration Turība;
• Higher School of Economics and Culture;
• Higher School of Psychology;
• Higher School of Social Work and Social Pedagogy “Attīstība”;
• Information Systems Institute;
• Institute of Social Technologies;
• International Institute of Practical Psychology;
• Latvian Christian Academy;
• Rīga Aeronautical Institute;
• Rīga International School of Economics and Business Administration;
• Transport and Telecommunication Institute

State colleges:
• RRC College;
• Rīga civil Engineering college
• Jēkabpils Agribusiness college;
• Latvian Culture College;
• Liepāja Maritime College;
• Olaine College of Mechanics and technology;
• Rīga Civil Engineering College;
• Rīga Technical College;
• Rīga Entrepreneurship College;
• Fire Protection and Civic Defence College;
• State Boarder Guards’ College
Private colleges: 3
• Alberta college;
• College of Accounting and Finance;
• Laws College;
• Business and Administration College.

More information
on education system http://www.izm.lv
http://www.aic.lv
www.eurydice.org

==Tuition fee in education system==

The tuition at pre-school, basic and secondary education in a state or municipality founded educational establishments is funded from the national or municipal budget. Private educational institutions may set a tuition fee for providing education. In higher education programmes the state covers tuition fees for a certain number of students’ places, according to the State Procurement in the respective academic year. Each higher education institution may set a tuition fee for the rest of students’ places. All students are entitled to a state credit for their studies in any higher education programme.
Foreigners or non-citizens pay for their education in accordance with the agreement concluded with the respective educational establishment. In cases when foreign citizens study in Latvia under an exchange programme and an equivalent number of Latvian students study abroad, the foreigners' studies in Latvia are financed from the budget resources of the Republic of Latvia allocated to the respective institution of higher education. The tuition fee for the citizens of European Union countries shall be determined and covered according to the same procedure as for the citizens and permanent residents of the Republic of Latvia.

==Strategic guidelines for the development of education for years 2007 - 2013 ==

Totally 57 millions Lats have been provided for the implementation of the strategic guidelines for the development of education of the Ministry of Education and Science. The following tasks are defined in the above strategic guidelines (listed in the sequence of priority):

* To introduce and pay for the pedagogic work of a teacher’s assistant for the purpose of providing support to children (Grades 1 – 6) with learning difficulties – 7.6922 Million Lats;

* To improve the social conditions of students at vocational educational establishments by means of increasing scholarships during years 2007 – 2010 up to 20 Lats per month on average, during years 2011 – 2013 up to 40 Lats per month, the total amount for year 2007 – 4.3611 Million;

* To develop the structure model for the distribution of study programs in compliance to the needs of agriculture and to ensure its implementation in the system of higher education (encouragement of the development of Doctor’s studies – at least 200 new places for Master studies per year, at least 100 new places for Doctor’s studies per year; the number of places for studies in the fields of natural sciences, engineering sciences, medicine and environment sciences increased by at least 300 per year. Provided increase of the scholarships fund by at least 5% per year) – 20 Million Lats.

* To ensure continuous attraction of the state investment for the purpose of arrangement and modernisation of educational establishments – 16.952 Million Lats.

* etc.

==References==

Ministry of Education and Science
http://izm.izm.gov.lv/58.html
(http://izm.izm.gov.lv/nozares-politika/izglitiba.html#izglitibas_sistema)

http://www.aic.lv/portal/en/education_in_latvia.html

http://www.aic.lv/bolona/Latvija/LV_%20Bol_en.pdf

Latvia

2008-09-01T11:55:20Z

SandisZuciks: /* Latvian education policy */

==Latvia==

Latvia, officially the Republic of Latvia is a country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. It is bordered to the north by Estonia, to the south by Lithuania, and to the east both by Belarus and the Russian Federation . Across the Baltic Sea to the west lies Sweden. The territory of Latvia covers 64,589 km² and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate.

The Latvians are a Baltic people closely related to the Lithuanians, with the Latvian language sharing many similarities to Lithuanian. Today the Latvians and Lithuanians are the only surviving members of the Baltic peoples and Baltic languages of the Indo-European family. The modern name of Latvia is thought to originate from the ancient Latvian name Latvji, which may have originated from the word Latve which is a name of the river that presumably flowed through what is now eastern Latvia.
Latvia is a democratic parliamentary republic and is divided into 26 districts. The capital and largest city is Riga. Latvia has been a member of the United Nations since 17 September 1991, of the European Union since 1 May 2004 and of NATO since 29 March 2004.

==Latvian education policy==
Every citizen of the Republic of Latvia and every person who has the right to a non-citizen passport issued by the Republic of Latvia, every person who has received a permanent residence permit, as well as citizens of European Union memberstates who have been issued a temporary residence permit, and their children, have equal right to acquire education, regardless of their property or social status, race, nationality, gender, religious or political convictions, state of health, occupation or place of residence.

==Governance of the Education System==

Education system is administered at three levels - national, municipal and institutional. The Parliament (Saeima), the Cabinet of Ministers and the Ministry of Education and Science are the main decision-making bodies at a national level. The Ministry of Education and Science is the education policy-making institution that also issues the licenses for opening comprehensive education institutions and sets educational standards along with the teacher training content and procedures.

==Latvian education system==

The components of the educational system are pre-school education(pirmsskolas izglitiba), 9-year basic education (pamatizglitiba), upper secondary education (videja izglitiba) and higher education (augstaka izglitiba).

Pre-school education (ISCED 0) is for children aged 5-7 years and is provided by general education establishments or kindergartens as part of compulsory 11 basic education. The objective is to foster general development of children and their readiness to enter the primary stage of basic education.

Basic education (ISCED 1 and 2) comprises primary and lower secondary education and lasts for 9 years. It is compulsory for all children aged 7 and above. The National Basic Education Standard (Valsts pamatizglitibas standarts) determines the curriculum and the content of national examinations. Those who do not complete basic education by 16 should, according to Law, continue studying to complete the programme by the time they are 18. They can also choose VET programmes that allow them to obtain a first or second level professional qualification and to complete the obligatory basic educational programme.

3-year vocational basic education programmes are provided in vocational schools for students without a certificate of basic education (after completion of at least 7 grades of basic education, but they must be at least 15 years old). Upper secondary education (ISCED 3) comprises two types of programme: general secondary (vispareja videja izglitiba) and vocational secondary (profesionala videja izglitiba). In general secondary, there are 4 study fields: general; humanities and social sciences; mathematics, natural science and technical, and vocational (arts, music, business, and sports). The following subjects are obligatory for all programmes: Latvian; first foreign language; second foreign language (in minority population schools - the minority language); mathematics, history; sports; business foundations and computer science. Every programme includes obligatory and optional subjects relevant to the particular field of studies. To receive the Certificate of the secondary education (Atestats par visparejo videjo izglitibu), students should take not less than 5 examinations in compulsory or optional study subjects and no more than 4 tests in compulsory study subjects.

Provision is regulated by the state which determines its level, form and target groups. It also defines the strategic goals and main tasks of each programme; its obligatory content, basic principles and assessment.

Different vocational education programmes are developed and offered for all economic branches. The National Standard of vocational education (Valsts profesionalas izglitibas standarts) and the Occupational Standards (Profesiju standarti) determine the curriculum and content of vocational education programmes.

4-year vocational secondary education programmes are offered to students who have successfully completed compulsory basic education. Graduates receive a diploma of vocational secondary education and a Level 3 vocational qualification.

2-3 year vocational education programmes lead to a Certificate of secondary education and qualification level 3.

Post secondary non-tertiary vocational education (ISCED 4) can be followed after graduating from general secondary schools. They are focused towards mastering purely professional skills and knowledge.

Tertiary education (ISCED 5). While there is a difference between academic and vocational higher education, it is not institutionalised. Universities and other higher education institutions run both academic and vocational programmes.
http://www.aic.lv/refernet/doc/Thematic%20Overview_2007.pdf
Thematic Overview_2007.pdf (application/pdf Object)
Academic higher education programmes (ISCED 5A) lead to a Bachelor’s degree (Bakalaurs) and Master’s degree (Magistrs). The duration of Bachelor’s programmes may be 3 or 4 years. A Master’s degree is awarded after the second stage of academic education and requires at least 5 years of university studies.

The Law of Higher Education Institutions (Augstakas izglitibas likums) and the Law of Vocational Education (Profesionalas izglitibas likums) stipulate a 2-level vocational higher education – the first level (2-3 years) leading to professional qualification Level 4 (ISCED 5B) and second level (ISCED 5B) leading to qualification level 5 (4-6 years). Having completed a programme, students are awarded with a professional qualification or a vocational Bachelor’s degree that can be followed by a further 1-2 years of vocational Master’s studies. The Master’s degree of higher vocational education is awarded if the total duration of studies is at least 5 years.

There can also be short second level vocational higher education study programmes (1-2 years), where the qualification is obtained on the basis of the previously acquired first level vocational higher education or academic Bachelor’s degree. In total the duration of professional qualification Level 5 study programmes is not less than 4 years after secondary education and not less than 2 years after college education.

Bachelor and Master degrees exist both in academic and vocational higher education. Bachelors of both categories have the right to enrol in master’s studies, masters of both categories (including also degrees in medicine and dentistry - 6 and 5 years of study respectively) - in doctoral studies.

Postgraduate education (ISCED level 6). A Master’s degree or the equivalent is required for admission to doctoral studies (Ph.D.) which last 3-4 full-time years. They include advanced studies of the subject in a relevant study programme (or an equivalent amount of independent research while working at a university, research institution, etc.) and a scientific research towards doctoral thesis.

==Higher education==

Access to higher (tertiary) education (HE). All holders of general secondary education certificates and diplomas on vocational secondary education meet the general admission requirements. However, the universities are free to set specific requirements, e.g. to choose which subjects have to been taken at school level to qualify for admission to a particular programme.

Bakalaurs (bachelor) and maģistrs (master) degrees are awarded both in academic and professional HE. Both types of bachelors are eligible for studies in master programmes and both types of masters (including holders of degrees in medicine and dentistry – 6 and 5 years respectively) – in doctoral programmes.

Academic higher education follows academic education standard and is aimed at preparing graduates for research and providing theoretical background for professional activities.

Bakalaurs degree in a branch of science is awarded after the first cycle of academic studies. Bachelor programmes comprise 120 – 160 credit points (180-240 ECTS) or 4-6 semesters of full-time studies. They include: compulsory part ≥50 CP (75 ECTS), optional part ≥20 CP (30 ECTS), thesis ≥10 CP (15 ECTS) and some subjects of free choice to earn the rest of necessary CP.

Maģistrs degree in a branch of science is awarded after the second cycle of academic studies comprising 80 (120 ECTS) credits, out of those thesis results in ≥20 CP, compulsory part includes theoretical aspects of the field (≥ 30 CP) and their practical application in solving actual problems (≥15 CP).

According to Standards of first and second level professional higher education, its aim is to provide in-depth knowledge in a field, enabling graduates to design and improve systems, products and technologies as well as to prepare graduates for creative, research and teaching activities in this field.

Professional bakalaurs programmes are designed to ensure professional competence, they comprise at least 160 CP (240 ECTS), out of those: general courses (≥15 CP), theoretical courses of the field (≥36 CP), specialization courses (≥60 CP), optional courses (≥6 CP), practical placement (≥26 CP), and state examinations including thesis (≥12 CP).

Professional HE programmes leading to maģistrs degree comprise no less than 40 CP (60 ECTS), out of those: up-to-date achievements in the field – in theory and in practice (≥7 CP), practical placements (≥6 CP), state examinations including thesis (≥20 CP) as well as research training, courses of design, management, psychology etc.

Apart from the programmes leading to bakalaurs and maģistrs degrees, there are other types of professional higher education programmes.

First-level professional HE (college) programmes comprise 80-120 CP (120-180 ECTS) and lead to a CEDUC 4th level professional qualification. These programmes are targeted mainly at labour market. Yet, the graduates of the first-level programmes can continue their studies in second-level professional programmes.

Second-level professional HE programmes lead to a CEDUC 5th level professional qualification. Such programmes can comprise either at least 40 CP (60 ECTS) for holders of bakalaurs degrees or at least 160 CP (240 ECTS) for secondary school leavers. In both cases programmes should include a practical placement of at least 26 CP (39 ECTS) and graduation examinations including thesis (≥10 CP). Graduates of programmes including the 70 CP (105 ECTS) compulsory part of the bakalaurs programme, have access to master studies.

Doctoral studies. From January 1, 2000 onwards a single type of doctoral degree Doktors is being awarded in Latvia.
Maģistrs degree (or the equivalent) is required for admission to doctoral studies. Doktors degree can be achieved at public defence of a doctoral thesis which may be a result of three to four years of full-time doctoral studies at a university or an equivalent amount of independent research while working at a university, research institution etc.

Latvian Council of Science appoints promotion councils and sets the procedures for awarding doctoral degrees.

Credit point system. Latvian credit point is defined as a one-week full-time study workload. An average workload of a full-time study year in most HE programmes is 40 CP. Latvian credit point system is compatible with ECTS. The number of ECTS credits is found by multiplying the number of Latvian credit points by a factor of 1.5.

Grading system. The state standards for higher education set the following ten-point marking system:

Achievement level Grade Meaning Approx. ECTS grade

very high 10 izcili (with distinction) A
very high 9 teicami (excellent) A
high 8 ļoti labi (very good) B
high 7 labi (good) C
medium 6 gandrīz labi (almost good) D
medium 5 viduvēji (satisfactory) E
medium 4 gandrīz viduvēji (almost satisfactory) E/FX
low 3–1 negatīvs vērtējums (unsatisfactory) Fail

Quality assurance. According to Latvian legislation, state-recognized degrees/diplomas may be awarded upon completion of an accredited programme in an accredited HE institution holding a state-approved Satversme (by-law). Quality assessment includes self-evaluation report by the higher education institution and peer evaluation. Evaluation teams consist of at least three experts, with only one from Latvia. In most cases the other two experts are selected from Western Europe or from the Baltic States. Decisions on programme accreditation are taken by the Accreditation Board, while those on institutional accreditation – by the Higher Education Council. The first accreditation cycle was completed in 2001. Recurrent assessments have to take place once every six years.

===State – recognized higher education institutions in Latvia===

Universities:
•University of Latvia;
•Rīga Technical University ;
•Latvia University of Agriculture;
•Daugavpils University;
•Rīga Stradiņa University.

State higher education institutions:
• Latvian Academy of Arts;
• Latvia Academy of Culture;
• Latvian Academy of Music;
• Liepāja Pedagogical Academy,
• Latvian Academy of Sports Education;
• Police Academy of Latvia.
• Banking Institution of Higher Education;
• Latvian Maritime Academy;
• Latvian National Academy of Defence;
• Rēzekne Higher Education Institution;
• Rīga Graduate School of Law;
• Rīga Higher School of Pedagogics and School Management;
• Stockholm School of Economics in Rīga;
• The Ventspils College;
• Vidzeme College of Higher Education.

Private higher education institutions
• Baltic Russian Institute;
• Business Institute RIMPAK Livonia;
• School of Business Administration Turība;
• Higher School of Economics and Culture;
• Higher School of Psychology;
• Higher School of Social Work and Social Pedagogy “Attīstība”;
• Information Systems Institute;
• Institute of Social Technologies;
• International Institute of Practical Psychology;
• Latvian Christian Academy;
• Rīga Aeronautical Institute;
• Rīga International School of Economics and Business Administration;
• Transport and Telecommunication Institute

State colleges:
• RRC College;
• Rīga civil Engineering college
• Jēkabpils Agribusiness college;
• Latvian Culture College;
• Liepāja Maritime College;
• Olaine College of Mechanics and technology;
• Rīga Civil Engineering College;
• Rīga Technical College;
• Rīga Entrepreneurship College;
• Fire Protection and Civic Defence College;
• State Boarder Guards’ College
Private colleges: 3
• Alberta college;
• College of Accounting and Finance;
• Laws College;
• Business and Administration College.

More information
on education system http://www.izm.lv
http://www.aic.lv
www.eurydice.org

==Tuition fee in education system==

The tuition at pre-school, basic and secondary education in a state or municipality founded educational establishments is funded from the national or municipal budget. Private educational institutions may set a tuition fee for providing education. In higher education programmes the state covers tuition fees for a certain number of students’ places, according to the State Procurement in the respective academic year. Each higher education institution may set a tuition fee for the rest of students’ places. All students are entitled to a state credit for their studies in any higher education programme.
Foreigners or non-citizens pay for their education in accordance with the agreement concluded with the respective educational establishment. In cases when foreign citizens study in Latvia under an exchange programme and an equivalent number of Latvian students study abroad, the foreigners' studies in Latvia are financed from the budget resources of the Republic of Latvia allocated to the respective institution of higher education. The tuition fee for the citizens of European Union countries shall be determined and covered according to the same procedure as for the citizens and permanent residents of the Republic of Latvia.

==Strategic guidelines for the development of education for years 2007 - 2013 ==

Totally 57 millions Lats have been provided for the implementation of the strategic guidelines for the development of education of the Ministry of Education and Science. The following tasks are defined in the above strategic guidelines (listed in the sequence of priority):

* To introduce and pay for the pedagogic work of a teacher’s assistant for the purpose of providing support to children (Grades 1 – 6) with learning difficulties – 7.6922 Million Lats;

* To improve the social conditions of students at vocational educational establishments by means of increasing scholarships during years 2007 – 2010 up to 20 Lats per month on average, during years 2011 – 2013 up to 40 Lats per month, the total amount for year 2007 – 4.3611 Million;

* To develop the structure model for the distribution of study programs in compliance to the needs of agriculture and to ensure its implementation in the system of higher education (encouragement of the development of Doctor’s studies – at least 200 new places for Master studies per year, at least 100 new places for Doctor’s studies per year; the number of places for studies in the fields of natural sciences, engineering sciences, medicine and environment sciences increased by at least 300 per year. Provided increase of the scholarships fund by at least 5% per year) – 20 Million Lats.

* To ensure continuous attraction of the state investment for the purpose of arrangement and modernisation of educational establishments – 16.952 Million Lats.

* etc.

==References==

Ministry of Education and Science
http://izm.izm.gov.lv/58.html
(http://izm.izm.gov.lv/nozares-politika/izglitiba.html#izglitibas_sistema)

http://www.aic.lv/portal/en/education_in_latvia.html

http://www.aic.lv/bolona/Latvija/LV_%20Bol_en.pdf

Latvia

2008-09-01T11:55:10Z

SandisZuciks: /* Latvian education policy */

==Latvia==

Latvia, officially the Republic of Latvia is a country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. It is bordered to the north by Estonia, to the south by Lithuania, and to the east both by Belarus and the Russian Federation . Across the Baltic Sea to the west lies Sweden. The territory of Latvia covers 64,589 km² and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate.

The Latvians are a Baltic people closely related to the Lithuanians, with the Latvian language sharing many similarities to Lithuanian. Today the Latvians and Lithuanians are the only surviving members of the Baltic peoples and Baltic languages of the Indo-European family. The modern name of Latvia is thought to originate from the ancient Latvian name Latvji, which may have originated from the word Latve which is a name of the river that presumably flowed through what is now eastern Latvia.
Latvia is a democratic parliamentary republic and is divided into 26 districts. The capital and largest city is Riga. Latvia has been a member of the United Nations since 17 September 1991, of the European Union since 1 May 2004 and of NATO since 29 March 2004.

==Latvian education policy==
Every citizen of the Republic of Latvia and every person who has the right to a non-citizen passport issued by the Republic of Latvia, every person who has received a permanent residence permit, as well as citizens of European Union memberstates who have been issued a temporary residence permit, and their children, have equal right to acquire education, regardless of their property or social status, race, nationality, gender, religious or political convictions, state of health, occupation or place of residence.
[[Image:Izglshema-eng.jpg]

==Governance of the Education System==

Education system is administered at three levels - national, municipal and institutional. The Parliament (Saeima), the Cabinet of Ministers and the Ministry of Education and Science are the main decision-making bodies at a national level. The Ministry of Education and Science is the education policy-making institution that also issues the licenses for opening comprehensive education institutions and sets educational standards along with the teacher training content and procedures.

==Latvian education system==

The components of the educational system are pre-school education(pirmsskolas izglitiba), 9-year basic education (pamatizglitiba), upper secondary education (videja izglitiba) and higher education (augstaka izglitiba).

Pre-school education (ISCED 0) is for children aged 5-7 years and is provided by general education establishments or kindergartens as part of compulsory 11 basic education. The objective is to foster general development of children and their readiness to enter the primary stage of basic education.

Basic education (ISCED 1 and 2) comprises primary and lower secondary education and lasts for 9 years. It is compulsory for all children aged 7 and above. The National Basic Education Standard (Valsts pamatizglitibas standarts) determines the curriculum and the content of national examinations. Those who do not complete basic education by 16 should, according to Law, continue studying to complete the programme by the time they are 18. They can also choose VET programmes that allow them to obtain a first or second level professional qualification and to complete the obligatory basic educational programme.

3-year vocational basic education programmes are provided in vocational schools for students without a certificate of basic education (after completion of at least 7 grades of basic education, but they must be at least 15 years old). Upper secondary education (ISCED 3) comprises two types of programme: general secondary (vispareja videja izglitiba) and vocational secondary (profesionala videja izglitiba). In general secondary, there are 4 study fields: general; humanities and social sciences; mathematics, natural science and technical, and vocational (arts, music, business, and sports). The following subjects are obligatory for all programmes: Latvian; first foreign language; second foreign language (in minority population schools - the minority language); mathematics, history; sports; business foundations and computer science. Every programme includes obligatory and optional subjects relevant to the particular field of studies. To receive the Certificate of the secondary education (Atestats par visparejo videjo izglitibu), students should take not less than 5 examinations in compulsory or optional study subjects and no more than 4 tests in compulsory study subjects.

Provision is regulated by the state which determines its level, form and target groups. It also defines the strategic goals and main tasks of each programme; its obligatory content, basic principles and assessment.

Different vocational education programmes are developed and offered for all economic branches. The National Standard of vocational education (Valsts profesionalas izglitibas standarts) and the Occupational Standards (Profesiju standarti) determine the curriculum and content of vocational education programmes.

4-year vocational secondary education programmes are offered to students who have successfully completed compulsory basic education. Graduates receive a diploma of vocational secondary education and a Level 3 vocational qualification.

2-3 year vocational education programmes lead to a Certificate of secondary education and qualification level 3.

Post secondary non-tertiary vocational education (ISCED 4) can be followed after graduating from general secondary schools. They are focused towards mastering purely professional skills and knowledge.

Tertiary education (ISCED 5). While there is a difference between academic and vocational higher education, it is not institutionalised. Universities and other higher education institutions run both academic and vocational programmes.
http://www.aic.lv/refernet/doc/Thematic%20Overview_2007.pdf
Thematic Overview_2007.pdf (application/pdf Object)
Academic higher education programmes (ISCED 5A) lead to a Bachelor’s degree (Bakalaurs) and Master’s degree (Magistrs). The duration of Bachelor’s programmes may be 3 or 4 years. A Master’s degree is awarded after the second stage of academic education and requires at least 5 years of university studies.

The Law of Higher Education Institutions (Augstakas izglitibas likums) and the Law of Vocational Education (Profesionalas izglitibas likums) stipulate a 2-level vocational higher education – the first level (2-3 years) leading to professional qualification Level 4 (ISCED 5B) and second level (ISCED 5B) leading to qualification level 5 (4-6 years). Having completed a programme, students are awarded with a professional qualification or a vocational Bachelor’s degree that can be followed by a further 1-2 years of vocational Master’s studies. The Master’s degree of higher vocational education is awarded if the total duration of studies is at least 5 years.

There can also be short second level vocational higher education study programmes (1-2 years), where the qualification is obtained on the basis of the previously acquired first level vocational higher education or academic Bachelor’s degree. In total the duration of professional qualification Level 5 study programmes is not less than 4 years after secondary education and not less than 2 years after college education.

Bachelor and Master degrees exist both in academic and vocational higher education. Bachelors of both categories have the right to enrol in master’s studies, masters of both categories (including also degrees in medicine and dentistry - 6 and 5 years of study respectively) - in doctoral studies.

Postgraduate education (ISCED level 6). A Master’s degree or the equivalent is required for admission to doctoral studies (Ph.D.) which last 3-4 full-time years. They include advanced studies of the subject in a relevant study programme (or an equivalent amount of independent research while working at a university, research institution, etc.) and a scientific research towards doctoral thesis.

==Higher education==

Access to higher (tertiary) education (HE). All holders of general secondary education certificates and diplomas on vocational secondary education meet the general admission requirements. However, the universities are free to set specific requirements, e.g. to choose which subjects have to been taken at school level to qualify for admission to a particular programme.

Bakalaurs (bachelor) and maģistrs (master) degrees are awarded both in academic and professional HE. Both types of bachelors are eligible for studies in master programmes and both types of masters (including holders of degrees in medicine and dentistry – 6 and 5 years respectively) – in doctoral programmes.

Academic higher education follows academic education standard and is aimed at preparing graduates for research and providing theoretical background for professional activities.

Bakalaurs degree in a branch of science is awarded after the first cycle of academic studies. Bachelor programmes comprise 120 – 160 credit points (180-240 ECTS) or 4-6 semesters of full-time studies. They include: compulsory part ≥50 CP (75 ECTS), optional part ≥20 CP (30 ECTS), thesis ≥10 CP (15 ECTS) and some subjects of free choice to earn the rest of necessary CP.

Maģistrs degree in a branch of science is awarded after the second cycle of academic studies comprising 80 (120 ECTS) credits, out of those thesis results in ≥20 CP, compulsory part includes theoretical aspects of the field (≥ 30 CP) and their practical application in solving actual problems (≥15 CP).

According to Standards of first and second level professional higher education, its aim is to provide in-depth knowledge in a field, enabling graduates to design and improve systems, products and technologies as well as to prepare graduates for creative, research and teaching activities in this field.

Professional bakalaurs programmes are designed to ensure professional competence, they comprise at least 160 CP (240 ECTS), out of those: general courses (≥15 CP), theoretical courses of the field (≥36 CP), specialization courses (≥60 CP), optional courses (≥6 CP), practical placement (≥26 CP), and state examinations including thesis (≥12 CP).

Professional HE programmes leading to maģistrs degree comprise no less than 40 CP (60 ECTS), out of those: up-to-date achievements in the field – in theory and in practice (≥7 CP), practical placements (≥6 CP), state examinations including thesis (≥20 CP) as well as research training, courses of design, management, psychology etc.

Apart from the programmes leading to bakalaurs and maģistrs degrees, there are other types of professional higher education programmes.

First-level professional HE (college) programmes comprise 80-120 CP (120-180 ECTS) and lead to a CEDUC 4th level professional qualification. These programmes are targeted mainly at labour market. Yet, the graduates of the first-level programmes can continue their studies in second-level professional programmes.

Second-level professional HE programmes lead to a CEDUC 5th level professional qualification. Such programmes can comprise either at least 40 CP (60 ECTS) for holders of bakalaurs degrees or at least 160 CP (240 ECTS) for secondary school leavers. In both cases programmes should include a practical placement of at least 26 CP (39 ECTS) and graduation examinations including thesis (≥10 CP). Graduates of programmes including the 70 CP (105 ECTS) compulsory part of the bakalaurs programme, have access to master studies.

Doctoral studies. From January 1, 2000 onwards a single type of doctoral degree Doktors is being awarded in Latvia.
Maģistrs degree (or the equivalent) is required for admission to doctoral studies. Doktors degree can be achieved at public defence of a doctoral thesis which may be a result of three to four years of full-time doctoral studies at a university or an equivalent amount of independent research while working at a university, research institution etc.

Latvian Council of Science appoints promotion councils and sets the procedures for awarding doctoral degrees.

Credit point system. Latvian credit point is defined as a one-week full-time study workload. An average workload of a full-time study year in most HE programmes is 40 CP. Latvian credit point system is compatible with ECTS. The number of ECTS credits is found by multiplying the number of Latvian credit points by a factor of 1.5.

Grading system. The state standards for higher education set the following ten-point marking system:

Achievement level Grade Meaning Approx. ECTS grade

very high 10 izcili (with distinction) A
very high 9 teicami (excellent) A
high 8 ļoti labi (very good) B
high 7 labi (good) C
medium 6 gandrīz labi (almost good) D
medium 5 viduvēji (satisfactory) E
medium 4 gandrīz viduvēji (almost satisfactory) E/FX
low 3–1 negatīvs vērtējums (unsatisfactory) Fail

Quality assurance. According to Latvian legislation, state-recognized degrees/diplomas may be awarded upon completion of an accredited programme in an accredited HE institution holding a state-approved Satversme (by-law). Quality assessment includes self-evaluation report by the higher education institution and peer evaluation. Evaluation teams consist of at least three experts, with only one from Latvia. In most cases the other two experts are selected from Western Europe or from the Baltic States. Decisions on programme accreditation are taken by the Accreditation Board, while those on institutional accreditation – by the Higher Education Council. The first accreditation cycle was completed in 2001. Recurrent assessments have to take place once every six years.

===State – recognized higher education institutions in Latvia===

Universities:
•University of Latvia;
•Rīga Technical University ;
•Latvia University of Agriculture;
•Daugavpils University;
•Rīga Stradiņa University.

State higher education institutions:
• Latvian Academy of Arts;
• Latvia Academy of Culture;
• Latvian Academy of Music;
• Liepāja Pedagogical Academy,
• Latvian Academy of Sports Education;
• Police Academy of Latvia.
• Banking Institution of Higher Education;
• Latvian Maritime Academy;
• Latvian National Academy of Defence;
• Rēzekne Higher Education Institution;
• Rīga Graduate School of Law;
• Rīga Higher School of Pedagogics and School Management;
• Stockholm School of Economics in Rīga;
• The Ventspils College;
• Vidzeme College of Higher Education.

Private higher education institutions
• Baltic Russian Institute;
• Business Institute RIMPAK Livonia;
• School of Business Administration Turība;
• Higher School of Economics and Culture;
• Higher School of Psychology;
• Higher School of Social Work and Social Pedagogy “Attīstība”;
• Information Systems Institute;
• Institute of Social Technologies;
• International Institute of Practical Psychology;
• Latvian Christian Academy;
• Rīga Aeronautical Institute;
• Rīga International School of Economics and Business Administration;
• Transport and Telecommunication Institute

State colleges:
• RRC College;
• Rīga civil Engineering college
• Jēkabpils Agribusiness college;
• Latvian Culture College;
• Liepāja Maritime College;
• Olaine College of Mechanics and technology;
• Rīga Civil Engineering College;
• Rīga Technical College;
• Rīga Entrepreneurship College;
• Fire Protection and Civic Defence College;
• State Boarder Guards’ College
Private colleges: 3
• Alberta college;
• College of Accounting and Finance;
• Laws College;
• Business and Administration College.

More information
on education system http://www.izm.lv
http://www.aic.lv
www.eurydice.org

==Tuition fee in education system==

The tuition at pre-school, basic and secondary education in a state or municipality founded educational establishments is funded from the national or municipal budget. Private educational institutions may set a tuition fee for providing education. In higher education programmes the state covers tuition fees for a certain number of students’ places, according to the State Procurement in the respective academic year. Each higher education institution may set a tuition fee for the rest of students’ places. All students are entitled to a state credit for their studies in any higher education programme.
Foreigners or non-citizens pay for their education in accordance with the agreement concluded with the respective educational establishment. In cases when foreign citizens study in Latvia under an exchange programme and an equivalent number of Latvian students study abroad, the foreigners' studies in Latvia are financed from the budget resources of the Republic of Latvia allocated to the respective institution of higher education. The tuition fee for the citizens of European Union countries shall be determined and covered according to the same procedure as for the citizens and permanent residents of the Republic of Latvia.

==Strategic guidelines for the development of education for years 2007 - 2013 ==

Totally 57 millions Lats have been provided for the implementation of the strategic guidelines for the development of education of the Ministry of Education and Science. The following tasks are defined in the above strategic guidelines (listed in the sequence of priority):

* To introduce and pay for the pedagogic work of a teacher’s assistant for the purpose of providing support to children (Grades 1 – 6) with learning difficulties – 7.6922 Million Lats;

* To improve the social conditions of students at vocational educational establishments by means of increasing scholarships during years 2007 – 2010 up to 20 Lats per month on average, during years 2011 – 2013 up to 40 Lats per month, the total amount for year 2007 – 4.3611 Million;

* To develop the structure model for the distribution of study programs in compliance to the needs of agriculture and to ensure its implementation in the system of higher education (encouragement of the development of Doctor’s studies – at least 200 new places for Master studies per year, at least 100 new places for Doctor’s studies per year; the number of places for studies in the fields of natural sciences, engineering sciences, medicine and environment sciences increased by at least 300 per year. Provided increase of the scholarships fund by at least 5% per year) – 20 Million Lats.

* To ensure continuous attraction of the state investment for the purpose of arrangement and modernisation of educational establishments – 16.952 Million Lats.

* etc.

==References==

Ministry of Education and Science
http://izm.izm.gov.lv/58.html
(http://izm.izm.gov.lv/nozares-politika/izglitiba.html#izglitibas_sistema)

http://www.aic.lv/portal/en/education_in_latvia.html

http://www.aic.lv/bolona/Latvija/LV_%20Bol_en.pdf

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2008-09-01T11:49:57Z

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